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ENGLISH  GMMMAB, 

IN 

FAMILIAR    LECTURES; 

ACCOM PAWIKD  BT 

A    COMPENDIUM, 

BMBRACI50 

A    NEW   SYSTEMATIC   ORDER  OF   PARSING 

A   NEW   SYSTEM   OF   PUNCTUATION, 

EXEBCISES  IN  FALSE  SYNTAX, 

AND 

A   SYSTEM   OP    PHILOSOPHICAL    GRAMMAR, 

Of  NOTESt 
TO  WHICH  ARC  ADDBD, 

AN    APPENDIX   AND  A  KEY  TO  THE   EXERCISES, 

DBSIOBBD 
TOR  THE  U8E  OP  SCHOOLS  AND  PRIVATE  LEARNERS. 

BT  SAMUEL  KIRKHAM 


BTBKBOTYPB      E  D  I  T  I  O  If  . 


NEW  YORK: 
ROBERT    B.    COLLINS, 

«54    PBARL    STREET. 


Sottthem  ZHstrid  of  Ne»-York,  tt, 

BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  lliat  on  die  22d  day  of  Aa|UBt,  A.  D.  1899,  In  tfie 
L.  S.    54th  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  Samuel  Klrk- 
ham,  of  the  said  district,  hath  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a  book,  the 
fight  whereof  he  claims  as  author,  in  the  words  following,  to  wit : 

"  English  Grammar  in  famihar  Lectures,  accompanied  by  a  Compendium,  embracing 
a  new  systematic  order  of  Parsing,  a  new  system  of  Pimctuation,  exercises  in  false 
Syntax,  and  a  System  of  Philosophical  Grammar  in  notes :  to  wtiich  are  added  an 
Appendix,  and  a  Key  to  the  Exercises  :  designed  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Private 
Learners.  By  Samuel  Kirkham.  Eleventh  Edition,  enlarged  and  improved."  In  con- 
formity to  the  act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled  "  an  act  for  the  encour- 
agement of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors 
and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  time  therein  mentioned."  And  also  to  an 
act  entitled  "  an  act  supplementary  to  an  act  entitled  an  act  for  the  encouragement 
of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  pro- 
prietors of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned,  and  extending  the  benefits 
thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and  etching  historical  and  other  prints."     OG 

FRED.  J.  BETTS,  <3    \ 

Clerk  of  the  Southern  District  of  NeuhYork,    i^^ 


/-^ 


AN  ESSAY  ON  ELOCUTION, 

DESIGNED    FOR    THE    USE    OF    SCHOOLS    AND    PRIVATE   LEARNERS^-  J 

BY  SAMUEL  KIRKHAM.  "^ 

This  work  is  mainly  designed  as  a  Reading-Book  for  Schools.    In  the  first  part  of  i  \ 
It,  the  principles  of  reading  are  developKjd  and  explained  in  a  scientific  and  practieai-^^ 
manner,  and  so  familiarly  illustrated  in  their  appUcation  to  practical  examples  as  to 
enable  even  the  juvenile  mind  very  readily  to  comprehend  their  nature  and  character, 
their  design  and  use,  and  thus  to  acquire  that  high  degree  of  excellence,  both  in  read- 
ing and  speaking,  which  all  desire,  but  to  which  few  attain. 

The  last  part  of  the  work,  contains  Selections  from  the  greatest  master-pieces  of 
rhetorical  and  poetical  composition,  both  ancient  and  modem.  Many  of  these  selec- 
rions  are  taken  from  the  most  elegant  and  classical  American  authors — writers  whos* 
noble  productions  have  already  shed  an  unfading  lustre,  and  stamped  inmiortaUty, 
upon  tiie  literature  of  our  country. — In  the  select  part  of  the  work,  rtietorical  mark* 
are  also  employed  to  point  out  the  appUcation  of  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  first 
part — The  very  favorable  reception  of  the  work  by  the  pubhc,  and  its  astonishinely 
rapid  introduction  into  schools,  since  its  first  publication  in  1833,  excites  in  the  authioi 
the  most  sanguine  hopes  in  regard  to  its  future  success. 

NOTICES. 

After  a  careful  perusal  of  this  work,  we  are  decidedly  of  opinion,  that  it  is  the  only 
successful  attempt  of  the  kind.  The  rules  are  copious,  and  the  author's  explanations 
and  illustrations  are  happily  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  learners.  No  school  should 
be  without  this  book,  and  it  ought  to  find  a  place  in  the  hbrary  of  every  gentleman 
who  values  the  attaiimient  of  a  just  and  forcible  elocution. — Pittsburgh  Mer.  April,  1834. 

Mr.  Kirkham  has  given  rules  for  inflections  and  emphasis,  and  has  followed  them  by 
Illustrative  examples,  and  these  by  remarks  upon  the  Inflection  which  he  has  adopted, 
and  the  reasons  for  his  preference  of  one  inflection  to  another — a<nost  admirable  pla» 
for  such  a  work.  Copious  examples  occur  in  which  all  the  various  inflections  and  tha 
shades  of  emphasis  are  distinguished  with  great  accuracy  and  clearness.  The  cate 
chetical  appendages  of  each  chapter,  give  tbe  work  new  value  in  a  school,  and  th« 
•elections  made  for  the  exercise  of  scholars,  evince  good  taste  and  judgment 

U.  S.  Gazette,  Philadelphia,  Sept.  17, 1834. 

The  E#8ay  now  before  us,  needs  not  depend  on  any  former  work  of  its  author  for  ■ 
b<jrrowed  reputation;  it  has  intrinsic  merits  of  its  own.  It  lays  down  principles 
clearly  and  concisely.  It  presents  the  reader  with  many  new  and  judicious  selections, 
both  in  prose  and  poetry  ;  and  altogether  evinces  great  industry,  combined  with  tasto 
and  ingenuity. — Courier  of  Upper  Canada,  York,  Oct.  12,  1833. 

Of  the  talent  and  judgment  of  Mr.  Kirkham,  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  speaK 
in  terms  of  honest  praise.  His  work  on  Elocution  raises  him  still  higher  in  our  esti- 
mation.— The  book  would  be  of  great  utility  in  schools — such  a  one  as  has  long  been 
wanted ;  and  we  are  glad  to  see  it  forthcoming. — Baltimore  Visitor,  July,  1833 

Every  faciUty  for  teaching  Elocution,  which  I  have  so  often  needed,  but  never  before 
foimd,  is  exactly  fumishe^d  in  this  work : — ^principles  are  clearly  and  concisely  laid 
down,  and  ore  very  happily  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  the  learner.  Thoroughly 
convinced  of  its  utility,  I  shall  lose  no  time  in  introducing  it  into  my  schooL 

Hartford,  Conn.  Aug.  20,  1834.  NATHANIEL  WESa 

2 


RECOHimSIVDATIONII. 

It  U  writ  known  thut  the  reeommendationa  which  generally  nrcnniu-inv  now  boolu 
hare  Tt-ry  liuk*  w«^  with  tiie  pubUe.    Thia  to  m  it  sbouki  )>-  rk  which 

n-MU  inoro  ou  ito  wiittsn  iMttmontoto,  tfaaa  on  to  intrinaie  mir  rt,  HMc>rts 

no  clitiiiu  to  pemiRiienl  patrunKt;c.     But  r*'ouuiinondatioiia  wi  ui<-  muriu 

of  a  work,  an. I    ■  ■  ^  .uturt's  iij  ii  . ;  ara 

calculattid  to  «  t«-ni  rccorntii'  -to- 

riooa,  the  atUhur  ^mt  in  tliin  v(  tul- 

lowing  are  aoae  ut'tL<  ■t  hr  haa  roceiTod,  m>\  tor  which  ho 

lendera  bto  graterul  n.  urnry  gondemcn  to  wliose  liberality 

audpoliteooaaheiaitKi'  .n  tU  kunJnd  oOten  prt^-nUni  to  tiio 

autbior,  and  many  of  wliicb  «ro  cquiiJly  Uutttruig  with  thoae.  h«  haa  not  room  to  insert 


TTie  following  notice  of  thia  work  U  extracted  firom  the  "  Weatem  Rorlcw,"  Thla 
journal  ia  al>ly  condacted  by  the  Ucr.  Timothy  Flint,  author  of  *•  Frnnrla  Bcrrian," 
"  Iliatory  and  Gvugruphy  of  the  Miaa.  Valley,"  and  many  otiicr  popular  and  valuable 
worka. 

We  had  not,  at  that  time,  ae«'n  Mr.  Kirklnun's  "  Cirnminur  in  fnmiliar  I.ecturea,"  but 
hare  ainoe  given  it  a  curaory  p<tush1.  If  wc  cornpnlnml  tin;  Kuthor'a  (i<«i:,'n,  it  la  not 
■o  much  to  Introdace  new  principleH,  na  to  rcndi-r  moru  eoay  luid  inU>lligible  ¥  oae 
which  have  been  long  oatabliahed,  and  to  fumiah  additional  faciUtiea  to  an  accural  and 
thoroof^  knowledge  of  onr  language.     In  thia  we  think  lie  haa  liocn  auccos.xful. 

It  to  to  be  expected  that  a  modeat  unaaauming  writr-r,  on  prcaentin?  himself  before 
the  public  tribunal  aa  an  author,  will,  aa  fur  aa  ia  consititent  with  hia  plan,  avail  himaelf 
of  the  authority  of  aach  aa  have  written  well  on  the  aubject  l>efore  him.  Mr.  Kirkham 
haa  accordingly  followed  Mr.  Murray  in  tlie  old  beaten  track  of  Ent^Iiah  writera  on 
grammar,  in  tKe  general  principlea  of  hia  acionce ;  endeavoring,  at  the  aamo  time,  to 
•void  whatever  appeared  to  be  erroncoua  or  abaurd  in  tlic  writini^a  ol  that  autlior,  and 
adopting  an  entirely  new  arrangement  llio  moat  uacful  rantter  contained  in  the 
troaSiae  of  Mr.  Murray,  to  embraced  in  thia  ;  but  in  the  definition!)  and  rulea,  it  ia  aim- 

C'ified,  and  rendered  much  more  intelligible.     Though  our  nutlior  follows  Mr.  Murray, 
the  general  principlea  ofhia  work,  he  haa,  in  numerous  Instjmcea,  dirtered  from  him, 
porroing  a  courau  tliat  appears  to  bo  hia  own,  and  introducing  somo  valuable  improve- 


Among  ttieae  may  be  mentioned  aome  additional  mica  and  explanatory  notca  in  syn- 
tax, dte  arrangement  of  the  parta  of  apeech,  the  mode  of  explaining  them,  manner  of 
paraing,  noanncr  of  explaining  acme  of  the  pronouns,  and  tlic  uac  of  a  aynopaia  which 
preaenta  the  esacntiala  of  the  aciencc  at  one  view,  and  to  well  calculated  to&fford  aaaist- 
ance  to  leamera. 

In  hia  arranc'-r-— •    *■  •'  -  - '" ~rh,  Mr.  Klrkhara  accma  to  have  endeavored 

to  follow  lAc  ord,  t  able  to  ace  how  he  could  have  done  better. 

The  noun  and  v  :  <>rtnnt  parta  of  pp«>ech,  arc  first  explained, 

and  aftcrwarda  t....-    <  ....  .1  in  a  secondary  and  subordinate  character. 

By  foDowing  thia  oni  divi  the  abi^urdity  so  common  amoni;  authora,  of 

defining  the  minor  ytuv.  r  prin<it)ale,  of  which  they  were  designed  to  be  the 

iq>pen<ugea,  and  haa  r^:...: — j  ,  ;c^ared  the  way  for  conducting  the  learner  by  eaay 
•dvuneea  to  a  correct  view  ut  the  acience. 

In  hto  illuatrationa  of  the  varioiu  sot^feeta  contahied  hi  hto  work,  our  author  appears 
to  have  aimed,  not  at  a  flowerv  etvle.  nor  ut  tlw  annonnaK-.-  of  iM-inir  learned,  but  at 
beinf  anderatood.    The  clear"  '<■<,  and  their  applicatioa 

to  CuniUar  objeeta,  are  well  r  M  aid  the  undoratandinf 

of  the  papO,  and  thereby  to  :  'Hie  prin<ii>l<>a  of  the 

aekmee  mn  timfiUed,  mmd  ren  -ly  cafy  of  ramprihcnsion,  w<!  RliDuld  think 

no  ordinary  mmd,  kaTtng  *u<:  liiid  tliem  ditllcult     It  is  in  thi.4  particular 

that  the  woriK  appeara  to  po«».  merit  and  on  tliia^ccount  it  caimot  fafl  of 

being  preferred  to  many  otherx. 

it  giv(«  oa  pleaaure  to  remark,  in  reference  to  the  ancceaa  of  the  amiaUo  and  modeil 
•atlior  whoae  work  to  before  ua,  that  we  quote  from  the  fifth  oditioQ. 
CinciUMtf,  Aug.  9i,  18:27. 

The  following  to  from  the  pen  of  a  gentlrman  of  the  Bar,  formerij  a  dtottngutohedL 

rinuii-nl  t*>nrh/-r.      fKxtriul  frnni  thi>  "  Nnrinmil  <'ri.Mi«.") 

rit  it  to  with  pcntliar  pleaaura 
1  "-Ir.  P.  Kirkham  iin)}>o»efl  to  d^ 

In.  ..),  ...  ("....I  i.,»..i,..t.-,!  ;,,  n.'iiulr- 

hu-    ,  .  ■.'>w 


4  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

presented  which  ougfit  not  to  be  neglected.  Having  myself  witnessed,  In  several  In* 
Btanoea,  within  the  last  ten  months,  the  practical  results  of  Mr.  Kirkham's  plan,  I  am 
enabled  to  give  a  decisive  opinion  of  its  merit*.  The  extensive  knowledge  acquired  is 
one  course  by  his  class  in  Pittsburgh,  and  the  great  proficiency  evinced  by  his  classe* 
elsewhere,  are  a  demonstration  of  the  utiUty  and  superiority  of  his  method  of  teach- 
ing, and  a  higher  encomium  on  him  than  I  am  able  to  bestow. 

Tlie  principles  on  which  Mr.  Kirkham's  "  New  system  of  Grammar"  is  predicated, 
are  judiciously  compiled,  and  happily  and  briefly  expressed ;  but  tlie  great  merit  of 
his  work  consists  in  the  lucid  illustrations  accompanying  the  principles,  and  the  simple 
and  gradual  manner  in  which  it  conducts  the  learner  along  from  step  to  step  through 
the  successive  stages  of  the  science.  The  explanations  blended  with  the  theory,  are 
addressed  to  the  imderstanding  of  the  pupil  in  a  manner  so  familiar,  that  they  cannot 
fail  to  excite  in  him  a  deep  interest ;  and  whatever  system  is  calculated  to  bring  into 
requisition  the  mental  powers,  must,  I  conceive,  be  productive  of  goo4  results.  In  my 
humble  opinion,  the  system  of  teaching  introduced  into  thia  work,  will  enable  a  dili- 
gent pupil  to  acquire,  without  any  other  aid,  a  practical  knowledge  of  grammar,  in  lest 
taan  one-fourth  part  of  the  time  usually  devoted. 

My  views  of  Mr.  Kirkham's  system  are  thus  publicly  .jgiven,  with  the  greater  plear 
sure,  on  account  of  the  literary  empiricisms  which  have  been  so  extensively  practised 
in  many  parts  of  the  western  country. 

Cindnnati,  April  26, 1826. 

From  Mr.  Blood,  Principal  of  the  Chambersburgh  Academy,  Pa 
,    Mr.  Kirkham, — It  is  now  almost  twenty  years  since  I  became  a  teacher  of  youth, 
and,  during  this  period,  I  have  not  only  consulted  all,  but  have  used  many  of  the  differ- 
ent systems  of  English  grammar  that  have  fallen  in  my  way ;  and,  sir,  I  do  assure  you, 
without  the  least  wish  to  flatter,  that  yours  far  exceeds  any  I  have  yet  seen. 

Yoxa"  arrangement  and  systematic  order  of  parsing  are  most  excellent ;  and  expe- 
rience has  convinced  me,  (having  used  it,  and  it  only,  for  the  last  twelve  or  thirteen 
months,)  that  a  scholar  will  learn  more  of  the  nature  and  principles  of  our  language  in 
01U  quarter,  from  your  system,  than  in  a  whole  year  from  any  other  I  had  previously 
used.  I  do,  tlierefore,  most  cheerfully  and  earnestly  recommend  it  to  the  pubUc  at 
large,  and  especially  to  those  who,  anxious  to  acquii'e  a  knowledge  of  our  language, 
are  destitute  of  the  advantages  of  an  instnfcter. 

Yours,  very  respectfuUy,  SAMUEL  BLOOD. 

Chambersbmrgh  Academy,  Feb.  12, 1825. 

From  Mr.  N.  R.  Smith,  editor  of  a  valuable  literary  journal,  styled  "  The  Hesperua.* 
Mr.  Kirkham, 

Sir,  I  have  examined  your  Lectures  on  English  Grammar  with  that  degree  of  minute 
ness  which  enables  me  to  yield  my  unqualified  approbation  of  the  work  as  a  grammati 
cal  system. .  The  engaging  manner  in  which  you  have  explained  the  elements  of  gram 
ma^and  accommodated  them  to  the  capacities  of  youth,  is  an  ample  illustration  of  the 
utility  of  your  plan.  In  addition  to  this,  the  critical  attention  you  have  paid  to  an 
analytical  development  of  grammatical  principles,  while  it  is  calculated  to  encourage 
tiie  perseverance  of  young  students  in  die  march  of  improvement,  is  sufficient,  also,  to 
employ  the  researches  of  the  literary  connoisseur.  I  trust  that  your  valuable  compila- 
tion will  be  speedily  introduced  into  schools  and  academies. 

With  respect,  yours,  N.  K.  SMITH,  A.  M. 

ntUburgh,  March  22, 1825. 

From  Mr.  Jungmann,  Principal  of  the  Frederick  Lutheran  Academy : — Extract 

Having  carefully  examined  Mr.  S.  Ku-kham's  new  system  of  "English  Grammar  !» 
femiliar  Lectures,''  I  am  satisfied  that  the  pre-eminent  advantages  it  possesses  over  our 
common  systems,  will  soon  convince  the  public,  that  it  is  not  one  of  those  feeble 
efforts  of  quackery  which  have  so  often  obtruded  upon  our  notice.  Its  decided  tupe 
riority  over  all  other  systems,  consists  in  adapting  the  subject-matter  to  the  capacity  of 
the  young  learner,  and  the  happy  mode  adopted  of  communicating  it  to  his  mind  in  a 
manner  so  clear  and  simple,  that  he  can  easily  comprehend  thfe  nature  and  the  applica- 
tion of  every  principle  that  comes  before  him. 

In  short,  all  the  Intricacies  of  the  science  are  elucidated  to  clearly,  I  am  confident  that 
even  a  privHte  learner,  of  common  docility,  can,  by  perusing  this  system  attentively, 
•cquire  a  belter  practical  knowledge  of  this  important  branch  of  literature  in  thre4 
months,  than  ist  ordinarily  obtained  in  one  year. 

Frederick,  Md  Sept.  17, 1824.  JOHN  E.  JUNGMANN. 

4 


ESC0Ni1t£NDATI0NS.  O 

CztTAct:  from  Do  Witt  Clinton,  lato  Got.  of  Nfw-Yorlt. 
Uhj  Compendium  of  Eni^liAh  Onunraiir,  by  Sim: 
eneoamgcmcnt,  and  well  cnlculatud  to  facilitate  tli<'  I 

AlbMij.  Sept  35,  1824. 

8.  gjrtt*'*'*'.  Esq. — I  hare  examined  vour  Grammar  with  atteatioii,  and  vrith  a  piurti- 
cular  view  to  benorit  the  Institution  under  my  charge.  I  am  ftiUy  aadAAcd.  tliat  it  is  the 
htatform  in  which  Murray'*  priodplea  hare  been  given  to  the  public  'llic  Icctumi 
•re  ample,  and  lovi-ti  in  su  tamiliw  asd  eaay  language,  •■  to  be  readily  understood, 
even  bT  a  tyro  in  grammar. 

I  feel  tt  &m  to  you  to  aay.  that  I  conwDeoren  ^ 

ttmng  mr^mdiet  a^intl  k,  in  eooaeoiWBee  ol  ' 
whioo  BM  pnbUc  boii  Ix-cn  inun<lHt<xl,  uf  Iati>,  ' 

meat*  on  Murray,  in"  liiile  grammar  has  ren- 

dered gnunmatir  .  are  tite  rerralt  of  imtmH 

fmti»».  .    1  w 

Krr,iH-cttuily,  i;i  .'  7  :"  \TON. 

Pr.  ofM  -ty  SchooL 

With  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Whcaton  rcapccting  Mr.  K  i  vi  ( Jrammar,  wa 

heartily  concur.  a,  I'r.  Acad. 

Newburgh,  Aug.  4,  1829.  (U-     , 

From  the  Rct.  C.  P.  Mcllvaine,  and  others. 
So  fur  IL4  I  Iinvi'  ox.iinined  the  plan  of  granunatical  Instruction  by  Samuel  Kirkham* 
1  ani  '  mtett  the  wants  of  elementary  schools  in  tliis  brunch,  and  do- 

sorv.  CHARLES  1'.  McILVAlNE. 

Br>.      ,  ,    ■,  1829. 

Wo  ftilhr  concur  in  tiie  aboTe.  ANBRK W  HAOEMAN, 

E.  M.  JOHNSON. 

xxmaoT. 

From  the  partial  examination  which  I  have  given  Mr.  8.  Kirklium's  F.n2;lJ8h  Griim- 
mar,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend  it  to  the  public  as  the  best  of  the  dose  I  have  ewr 
asam,  and  as  filling  up  an  important  and  almost  impassable  chasm  in  works  on  gram- 
matieal  science.  D.  L.  CARROLL. 

Brooklyn,  L.  1.  Juno  29, 1829. 

We  folly  concur  In  the  foregoing  recommendation.  B.  B.  HALLOCK, 

E.  KINGSLEY, 
T.  S.  MAYBON. 

From  A.  W.  Dodgo,  Esq. 

New-York,  July  15,  1829. 

The  eraerience  of  every  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  business  of  instruction,  must 
nave  taught  him  that  the  shHy  of  cmmmHr,  important  as  It  is  to  every  class  of  loam- 
'      '?t  invariably  ii  .'  '      '  •        •iii;  study  to  young  beginners,  and  for  the 

.  1  reason,  that  r; J  use  in  the  schools,  are  far  hetfond  the 

on  of  yoiiUi.  .'ir  years.     Hence  it  is,  that  their  lessons 

.11  I  'm"'  •'  '     rin.i:;,  -u .  v .  ,ii.-iiw.i  .Tii  OS  Ui»k»,  and  if  committed  ataQ,  commit- 

ted t  cnlighuning  their  understandings;  so  that  many  a  pupil  who 

hao  '  idh  ^ainmar,  is  totally  unacquamtcd  with  the  nature  even  of 

the  1. 

Ti  nar,  is  well  calculated  to  remedy  tlieso  evils,  and 

•upi  I  lonsr  and  so  seriously  felt  in  the  imperfect  edu- 

im:.  wl.-ilr'!'    (if  their    iiwii    IniuaKici'.      IJv  h  simple, 

bctore 
rofMr. 
•  triciite 


I'-.ts  to 

iivinco 

I  is  not 

ir>,-ju(lic«  to  o'.il  ru!<  s  Mn^l   furiiis,  thul  it  will  ini-«>t  tlu'  wnntJ4  of  tlie  com- 

ALLEN  W.  DODGE. 


0  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Philadelphia,  Aug.  10, 1829. 

Having,  fbr  several  years,  been  engaged  hi  lecturing  on  the  science  of  grammar, 
and,  during  this  period,  having  thoroughly  tested  the  merits  of  Mr.  S.  Kirkham's  i-ystem 
of  "  English  Grammar  in  FamiUar  Lectures"  by  using  it  as  a  text-book  for  my  classed, 

1  take  pleasure  in  giving  this  testimonial  of  my  cordial  approbation  of  the  work.  Mr. 
Kirkham  has  attempted  to  improve  upon  tliis  branch  of  science,  chiefly  by  unfolding 
and  explaining  the  principles  of  grammar  in  a  manner  so  clear  and  simple,  as  to  adapt 
them  completely  to  the  understanding  of  the  young  learner,  and  by  adopting  a  new 
arrangement,  which  enables  the  pupil  to  commit  the  principles  by  a  simultaneous  ap- 
pUcation  of  tiiem  to  practical  examples.  The  public  may  rest  assured,  that  he  has 
been  successful  in  his  attempt  in  a  pre-eminent  degree.  I  make  this  assertion  \mder  a 
fiill  conviction  that  it  will  be  corroborated  by  every  candid  judge  of  the  science  who 
becomes  acquainted  with  the  practical  advantages  of  this  manual. 

The  explicit  brevity  and  accuracy  of  the  rules  and  definitions,  the  novel,  the  striking, 
the  lucid,  and  critical  illustrations  accompanying  them,  the  peculiar  and  advantageotis 
arrangement  of  the  various  parts  of  the  subject  the  facilities  proffered  by  the  "system 
atic  mode  of  parsing"  adopted,  the  convenient  and  judicious  introduction  and  adapta- 
tion of  the  exercises  introduced,  and  the  deep  researches  and  critical  investigations  dis- 
played in  the  "  Philosophical  Notes,"  render  this  system  of  grammar  so  decidedly  supe- 
rior to  all  others  extant,  that,  to  receive  general  patronage,  it  needs  but  to  be  known. 

My  knowledge  of  this  system  from  experience  in  teaching  it,  and  witnessing  its  effects 
In  the  hands  of  private  learners,  warrants  me  in  saying,  that  a  learner  will,  by  studying 
this  book  four  months  withovX  a  teacher,  obtain  a  more  clear  conception  of  fiio  nature 
and  proper  construction  of  words  and  phrases,  than  is  ordinarily  obtained  in  common 
schools  and  academies,  in  five  times  four  months. 

It  is  highly  gratifying  to  know,  that  wherever  this  system  has  been  circulated,  it  is 
very  rapidly  supplanting  those  works  of  dulness  which  have  so  long  paralyzed  the 
energies  of  the  youth  of  our  country. 

I  think  the  specimens  of  verbal  criticism,  additional  corrections  in  orthography  and 
ortheopy,  the  leading  principles  of  rhetoric,  and  the  improvements  in  the  illustrations 
generally,  which  Mr.  K.  is  about  introducing  into  his  kleventh  edition,  will  render 
It  quite  on  itnprovemerU  on  the  former  editions  of  this  work.  H.  WINCHESTER. 

From  the  Aev.  S.  Center,  Principal  of  a  Classical  Academy. 

I  have  examined  the  last  edition  of  Kirkham's  Grammar  with  peculiar  satisfaction 
The  improvements  which  appear  in  it,  do,  in  my  estimation,  give  it  a  decided  preference 
to  any  other  system  now  in  use.  To  point  out  the  peculiar  qualities  which  secure  to 
it  claims  of  which  no  other  system  can  boast,  would  be,  if  required,  perfectly  easy.  At 
present  it  is  sufficient  to  remark,  that  it  imbodies  all  that  is  essentially  excellent  and 
ttBeiiil  in  other  systems ;  while  it  is  entirely  free  from  that  tediousness  of  method  and 
prolixity  of  definition  which  so  much  perplex  and  embarrass  the  learner. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  Mr.  Kirkham's  grammar  is,  the  simplicity  of  its  method, 
and  t?ie  plainness  of  its  illustrations.  Being  conducted  by  familiar  lectures,  the  teacher 
and  pupil  are  necessarily  brought  into  agreeable  contact  by  each  lesson.  Both  are  im« 
proved  by  the  same  task,  without  the  sUghtest  suspicion,  on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  that 
there  is  anything  hard,  difficult,  or  obscure  in  the  subject :  a  conviction,  this,  which 
must  inevitably  precede  all  efforts,  or  no  proficiency  will  be  made.  In  a  word,  the 
treatise  I  am  recommending,  is  a  practical  one ;  and  for  that  reason,  if  there  were  no 
others  to  be  urged,  it  ought  to  be  introduced  into  all  our  schools  and  academies.  From 
actual  experiment  I  can  attest  to  the  practicability  of  the  plan  which  tho  author  has 
adopted.  Of  this  fact  any  one  may  be  convinced  who  will  take  the  p«!ns  to  make  the 
experiment  SAMUEL  CENTEB. 

Albany,  July  10, 1829. 

From  a  communication  addressed  to  S.  Kirkham,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Stockton,  author 
the  "Western  Calculator"  and  "Western  Spelling-Book." 

Dear  Sir. — I  am  much  pleased  with  both  the  plan  and  aceciuion  of  your  "  English 
Grammar  in  Familiar  Lectures."  In  giving  a  systematic  made  of  parsing,  calculated  alike 
to  exercise  the  understanding  and  memory  of  Uie  pupil,  and  also  free  tlie  teacher  from 
the  drudgery  of  continued  interrogation,  you  have  made  your  grammar  what  every 
tlemtntary  school  book  ought  to  be — plain,  systematic,  and  easy  to  be  understood. 

This,  with  the  copious  definitions  in  every  part  of  the  work,  and  other  improvements 
•o  judiciously  introduced,  gives  it  o  decisive  superiority  over  the  Imperfect  grammar  oi 
Murray,  now  so  generally  used.  JOSEPH  STOCKTON,  A   M. 

AUegheny-Town,  (near  Pittsburgh,)  March  18, 1825 


ASVERTIflBJIlENT 

TO  THE  ELBVENTH  EDITION. 

The  author  is  free  to  acknowledge,  that  sbce  this  treatise  first  yentared 
on  the  wave  of  public  opinion,  the  gales  of  patronage  which  have  waftod 
it  al«nij^,  hiive  been  far  naoro  favorable  than  he  had  reason  to  anlicipato. 
Ha«l  luiy  (»no,  on  its  first  appearance,  predicttxl,  that  the  demand  for  it 
would  call  forth  twtnty-two  thousand  copies  during  the  past  year,  the  au« 
thor  would  have  considered  the  prediction  extravagant  and  chimerical.  In 
grutitude,  therefore,  to  tluit  public  which  has  smiled  so  propitiously  on 
his  humble  efforts  to  advance  the  cause  of  learning,  he  has  endeavored, 
by  tmremitting  attention  to  the  imjjrovement  of  his  work,  to  render  it  as 
useful  and  as  unexceptionable  as  hts  time  and  talents  would  permit. 

It  is  believed  that  the  tenth  and  eleventh  editions  have  been  greatly  im- 
proved ;  but  the  author  is  apprehensive  that  his  work  is  not  yet  as  accQ- 
rate  and  as  much  simplified  as  it  may  be.  If,  however,  tlie  disadvantages 
of  lingering  under  a  on^ken  constitution,  and  of  being  able  to  devote  to 
this  subject  only  a  small  portion  of  his  time,  snatched  from  the  active  pur- 
suits of  a  business  life,  {aetive  as  far  as  his  imperfect  health  permits  him  to 
be,)  are  any  apology  for  its  defects,  he  hopes  that  tho  candid  will  set  down 
the  apology  to  his  credit.  This  personal  allusion  is  hazarded  with  the 
additional  hope,  that  it  will  ward  off  some  of  the  arrows  of  criticism  which 
may  be  aimed  at  him,  and  render  less  pointed  and  poisonous  those  that 
may  fall  upon  him.  Not  that  he  would  beg  a  truce  with  the  gentlemen 
critics  and  reviewers.  Any  compromise  with  them  would  betray  a  want 
of  self-confidence  and  moral  courage  which  he  would,  by  no  means,  be 
willing  to  avow.  It  would,  moreover,  bo  prejudicial  to  his  interest ;  for 
he  is  determined,  if  his  life  be  preserved,  to  avail  himself  of  the  advanta- 
ges of  any  judicious  and  candid  criticisms  on  his  production,  that  may  ap- 
pear, and,  two  or  three  years  hence,  revise  his  work,  and  present  to  the 
public  another  and  a  better  edition. 

The  improvements  in  the  tenth  edition,  consisted  mainly  in  the  addition 
of  many  important  principles ;  in  rendering  the  illustrations  more  critical, 
extensive,  accurate,  and  lucid  ;  in  coimecting  more  closely  with  tho  genius 
and  philosophy  of  our  language,  the  general  principles  adopted ;  and  in 
adding  a  bnef  view  of  philosophical  grammar  interspersed  in  notes.  The 
introduction  into  the  elkventh  edition,  of  many  verbal  criticisms,  of  ad- 
ditional corrections  in  orthogmnhy  and  orthoepy,  of  tho  leading  nrinciplos 
of  rhetoric,  and  of  general  additions  and  improvements  in  vanous  parts 
of  the  work,  render  this  edition,  it  is  believed,  far  preferable  to  any  of 
the  former  editions  of  the  work. 

Perhaps  some  will  regard  the  philosophical  notes  as  a  useless  exhibition 
of  pedantry.  If  so,  the  author's  only  apology  is,  that  some  investigations 
of  this  nature  seemed  to  bo  called  for  by  a  portion  of  tho  commimity 
whose  minds,  of  late,  appear  to  be  under  the  influence  of  a  kind  of  philo' 
Bophical  nuinia ;  and  to  such  these  notes  are  respectfully  submitted  for 
just  what  they  may  deem  their  real  value.  The  author's  own  opinion  on 
this  point,  is,  thut  they  pn)ffer  no  material  advantages  to  common  learn- 
ers ;  but  that  they  may  pn)fitably  engage  the  attention  of  the  curious,  and 
perhaps  impart  a  degree  of  interest  to  the  literary  connoisaeur* 
N^^^ork.  August  22,  1829. 


€OI¥TC]VTI$. 


PAGE. 

FAGK 

Address  to  the  learner                   14 

Nouns 

30 

A,  an,  one                                65,  124 

Gender  of 

34 

And                                                 124 

Person  of 

37 

Adjectives                                  37, 69 

Number  of 

39 

Adverbs                                             83 

Case  of 

41,  54,  123 

Agreement  of  words                       52 

Orthography 

19, 199 

Anomalies                                      162 

Rules  of 

23 

Articles                                            64 

Parsing 

49 

Because                                       .  125 

Participles 

78 

But,  than,  as                   116,124,165 

Poetry  transposed 

166 

Case                                                  41 

Prepositions 

91 

Nominative                          43,  157 

Pronouns 

95 

Possessive                                      48 

Personal 

97 

Objective                               54, 93 

Compound  personal 

100 

Nominative  case  indepen- 

Adjective 
Relative 

105 

dent             38,  129,  164,  177 

108 

Nominative  case  absolute  130, 177 

Pronunciation 

201 

Apposition  of  cases           130,  178 

Prosody 

208 

Nominative  and  objective 

Provincialisms 

205 

after  the  verb  to  be           186 

Punctuation 

209 

Active,  passive,  and  neuter 

Rhetoric 

219 

nominatives                         157 

Rules  of  syntax 

175 

Conjunctions  118 

Conjugation  of  regular  verbs       142 
Derivation  (all  the  philosoph- 
ical notes  treat  of  de- 
rivation) 27,  37,  171 
Etymology  26 
Exercises  in  false  syntax               177 

In  punctuation  210 

Figures  of  speech  222 

Gender  34 

Government  52 

Grammar,  general  division  of        17 

Philosophical  18 

Have  143,  155 

Idioms  162 

Interjections  126 

It  104 

If  122 

Key  to  the  exercises  225 

Letters,  sounds  of  21 

Like  75 

Manner  of  meaning  of  words  28, 73 
Moods  134 

Signs  of  141 

Subjunctivo  135,  145,  155 


Sentences,  definitions  of  sim- 
ple and  compound  119 
Transposition  of  124,  166 
Standard  of  grammatical  ac'- 

curacy  17, 75 

Syntax  26 

To  51 

Tenses  138,  193 

Signs  of  the  141 

The  64, 65 

That  65,  110 

Termmations        20,  37,  49,  78,  136 

Verbs  42,47 

Active-transitive  54, 56 

Active-intransitive  55 

Passive  157 

Neuter  43 

Defective  159 

Auxiliary  140, 153 

Regular  143 

Irregular  148 

Compound  95,  187 

Versification  218 

Worth  75,  163 

What,  which,  who  lOSWlH,  J 14 

You  99 


PREFACJC. 

There  apjwars  to  bo  Bomething  assuming  in  ihe-act  of  writnig,  mid  thrust- 
ing into  pubHc  notice,  a  now  work  on  a  subject  which  has  already  em- 
C loved  many  able  pens ;  for  who  would  presume  to  do  this,  unloBS-  he 
ehevetl  his  nnxluction  to  bo,  in  some  respects,  superior  to  every  one  of  the 
kind  which  had  pi-ecetled  it  ?  Hence,  ni  presenting  to  the  public  thia 
•ystem  of  Knglish  Grammar,  the  author  is  aware  that  an  apology  will  bo 
f-w,lr,.,i  ♦",,r.  und  that  tho  arguments  on  which  that  apology  is  grounded, 
itably  undergo  a  rigid  scrutiny.  Apprehensive,  however,  that 
it<>r>-  ertort,  on  his  l>art,  would  shield  him  from  tho  imputation 
vl  ;i;  lo. MiK  .•  I)y  sik  li  fis  are  blinded  by  self-interest,  or  by  those  who  are 
\v.'.icii-.l  t.i  ihi-  (lot  trines  an«l  opinions  of  his  predecessfirs,  with  them  ho 
will  not  altiiapt  h  compromise,  being,  m  a  great  measure,  indiilereut  either 
to  their  praise  or  their  censure.  But  with  the  candid,  he  is  \\'illing  to  ne- 
gotiate an  amicable  treaty,  knowing  tlmt  they  are  always  retuly  to  enter 
mto  it  on  honorable  tenus.  In  this  negotiation  he  asks  nothing  more 
than  merely  to  rest  tho  merits  of  his  work  on  its  practicjd  utility,  believing 
that,  if  it  prove  uncommonly  successfiil  in  facilitating  the  progress  of  youth 
in  the  march  of  mental  improvement,  thai  will  be  its  best  apology. 

When  we  bring  into  considenition  the  numerous  productions  of  those 
learned  philologists  who  have  labored  so  lon°f,  and,  as  many  suppose,  so 
successfully,  in  establishuig  the  principles  of  our  language;  and,  more 
©specially,  when  we  view  the  labors  of  some  of  our  modern  compilers, 
who  have  displayed  so  much  ingenuity  and  acuteness  in  attempting  to  ar- 
range tlioso  principles  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  correct  and  an  easy 
medium  of  mental  conference ;  it  does,  indeed,  appear  a  little  liko  pr^ 
sumption  for  a  young  man  to  enter  tipon  a  subject  which  has  so  frequently 
engiiged  tho  attention  and  tafenLs  of  men  distinguished  fijr  tlieir  enidition. 
The  author  ventures  forward,  however,  under  the  conviction,  that  most  of 
his  predecessors  are  very  deficient,  at  least,  in  manner,  if  not  in  matter; 
and  this  conviction,  ho  believes,  will  be  corroborated  by  a  majority  of  tho 
best  judges  in  commimity.  It  is  admitted,  that  many  valuable  improve- 
ments  have  been  made  by  some  of  our  late  writers,  who  liave  endeavor- 
ed to  simplify  and  render  this  subject  intelligible  to  the  young  learner,  but 
they  have  all  overlooked  what  the  aiithor  considers  a  veiy  inijK>rlaut  ob 
Ject,  ■aaxneX'^,  a  ty$tematic  order  of  parsinp ;  and  nearly  all  have  neg- 
lected to  develop  and  explain  the  principles  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable 
the  learner,  witliout  great  tlilKculty,  to  comprehend  their  nature  and  use 

By  some  this  system  will,  no  doubt,  be  discarth'd  on  account  of  its  «m- 
flrfiW/y ;  while  to  others  its  simplicity  will  prove  its  principal  recommen- 
aalion.  Its  design  is  an  humble  one.  It  protfers  no  great  advantages  to 
llie  recondite  grammarian ;  it  professes  not  to  instruct  tho  litei-nry  con- 
n«'isseur;  it  presents  no  attractive  graces  of  style  to  chann,  no  tlaring 
Bights  to  asUinish,  no  deep  researches  to  gratify  him  ;  but  in  tho  humblest 
simplicity  of  diction,  it  attempts  to  accelerate  tho  march  of  the  juvenile 
mind  in  its  advances  in  the  |)ath  of  science,  by  dispersing  tlios*;  clouds  that 
•o  oi\en  bewilder  it,  and  removing  those  obstacles  that  rroiirrally  retard 
its  progress.     In  tliis  w^ay  it  endeavors  to  render  i'  lruf«^eligh^ 

fill  a  stady  which  has  hitherto  been  considered  teiii  <!  irksome. 

Its  leading  object  is  to  adopt  a  correct  and  an  en.^>  imm-nl,  in  which 
^easore  is  blended  with  the  labors  of  tho  learner,  and  which  is  calcn- 
bted  to  excite  in  him  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  that  shall  call  forth  into  vigorous 
and  usefiil  exercise,  every  latent  energy  of  his  mind  ;  and  thus  enable  him 
soon  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  princ  plos, 
and  with  their  praetical  utility  and  application 


10  PREFACE. 

Content  lo  be  useful ,  instead  of  being  brilliant,  the  writer  of  these  pages 
has  endeavored  to  shun  the  path  of  those  whose  aim  appears  to  have  been 
to  dazzle,  rather  than  to  instruct.  As  he  lias  aimed  not  so  much  at  origi- 
naUty  as  utility,  he  has  adopted  the  thoughts  of  his  predecessors  whoso 
labors  have  become  public  stock,  whenever  he  could  not,  in  his  opinion, 
furnish  better  and  brighter  of  his  own.  Aware  that  there  is,  in  the  pub- 
lic mind,  a  strong  predilection  for  the  doctrines  contained  in  Mr.  Murray's 
grammar,  he  has  thought  proper,  not  merely  from  motives  of  pohcy,  but 
&om  choice,  to  select  his  principles  chiefly  from  that  work ;  and,  more- 
over, to  adopt,  as  far  as  consistent  with  his  own  views,  the  language  of  that 
eminent  philologist.  In  no  instance  has  he  varied  from  him,  unless  ho 
conceived  that,  m  so  doing,  some  practical  advantage  would  be  gained. 
He  hopes,  therefore,  to  escape  the  censure  so  frequently  and  so  justly 
awarded  to  those  unfortunate  innovators  who  have  not  scrupled  to  alter, 
mutilate,  and  torture  the  text  of  that  able  writer,  merely  to  gratify  an 
itching  propensity  to  figure  in  the  world  as  authors,  and  gain  an  ephemeral 
popularity  by  arrogating  to  themselves  the  credit  due  to  another. 

The  author  is  not  disposed,  however,  to  disclaim  all  pretensions  to  origi- 
nality ;  for,  although  hia  principles  are  chiefly  selected,  (and  who  would 
presume  to  make  new  ones?)  the  manner  of  arranging,  illustrating,  and 
applying  them,  is  principally  his  own.  Let  no  one,  therefore,  if  he  hap- 
pen to  find  in  other  works,  ideas  and  illustrations  similar  to  some  contain- 
ed in  the  following  lectures,  too  hastily  accuse  him  of  plagiarism.  It  is 
well  known  that  similar  investigations  and  pursuits  often  elicit  correspond 
ing  ideas  in  different  minds :  and  hence  it  is  not  imcommon  for  the  same 
thought  to  be  strictly  original  with  many  writers.  The  author  is  not  here 
attempting  to  manufacture  a  garment  to  shield  him  from  rebuke,  should 
he  unjustly  claim  the  property  of  another ;  but  he  wishes  it  to  be  under- 
stood, that  a  long -course  of  teaching  and  investigation,  has  often  produced 
in  his  mind  ideas  and  arguments  on  the  subject  of  grammar,  exactly  or 
nearly  corresponding  with  those  which  he  afterwards  found,  had,  luider 
similar  circumstances,  been  produced  in  the  minds  of  others.  He  liopes, 
therefore,  to  be  pardoned  by  the  critic,  even  though  he  should  not  bo 
willing  to  reject  a  good  idea  of  his  ottm,  merely  because  some  one  else 
has,  at  some  time  or  other,  been  blessed  with  the  same  thought. 

As  the  plan  of  this  treatise  is  far  more  comprehensive  than  those  of  or- 
dinary grammars,  the  writer  could  not,  without  makmg  his  work  mirea- 
sonably  voluminous,  treat  some  topics  as  extensively  as  was  desirable. 
Its  design  is  to  embrace,  not  only  all  the  most  important  principles  of  the 
•cience,  but  also  exorcises  in  parsing,  false  syntax,  and  punctuation,  suffi- 
ciently extensive  for  all  ordinary,  practical  purposes,  and  a  key  to  the  ex- 
ercises, and,  moreover,  a  series  of  illustrations  so  full  and  intelligible,  as 
completely  to  adapt  the  principles  to  the  capacities  of  common  learners. 
Whether  this  design  has  been  jsuccessfully  or  tmsuccessfiilly  executed,  is 
left  for  the  public  to  decide.  The  general  adoption  of  the  work  into 
schools,  wherever  it  has  become  known,  and  the  ready  sale  of  forty  thoji- 
tand  copies,  (though  without  hitherto  affording  the  author  any  pecuniary 
profit,)  are  favorable  omens. 

In  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  principles  for  his  work,  the  author 
has  endeavored  to  pursue  a  course  between  the  extremes,  of  taking  blindly 
on  trust  whatever  has  been  sanctioned  by  prejudice  and  the  authority  of 
venerable  names,  and  of  that  arrogant,  innovating  spirit,  which  sets  at  de- 
fiance all  authority,  and  attempts  to  overthrow  all  former  systems,  and  con- 
vince the  world  that  all  true  knowledge  and  science  are  wrapped  up  in  t 
crude  system  of  vagaries  of  its  own  invention.  Notwithstandmg  the  author 
is  awaro  that  public  prejudice  is  powerfid,  and  that  ho  who  venturer 


HINTS  TO  TEACHERS.  iJ 

miH'h  hy  wiiy  of  iuuoviition,  will  !>«  liable  to  defeat  hia  own  txirpofte  by  falU 

■      t ;  yet  ht;  hiu)  taken  the  liberty  te  thiuk  for  luuiwlf,  to  mvi.-iv 

t  critically  and  (liH{)aii.si(>imtely,  and  totulontsiitli  principled 

....  ..    ..-.  ...    uied  llio  lejMt  obiectioiiablc,  tiud  bent  calculated  to  etfect  tlio 

object  he  had  in  view.  But  what  his  Bystem  clniras  as  iraprovementu  on 
othem,  consists  not  so  much  in  bettering  the  principles  themselves,  as  in 
the  imrthod  adopted  of  communicating  a  knowledge  of  them  to  the  mind  of  the 
Uamer.  Tbit  the  work  is  del'ective,  the  author  is  fully  sensible :  and  he  is 
free  t<«  n<>V"<<vvl.Hlge,  that  its  defects  arise,  in  part,  fn>ni  his  own  want  of 
jud-  -kill.     But  there  is  another  and  a  more  serious  cause  of 

theiM.  I  lie  anomalies  and  imi>erfections  with  which  the  language 

abounds.  'I'liis  latter  circumstance  is  alwj  the  cause  of  the  existence  of  so 
widely  different  opinions  on  many  important  [xtitits ;  and,  moreorer,  the 
reason  that  the  grammatical  principles  of  our  language  can  never  be  indis- 
putably Bettled.  But  principles  ought  not  to  be  rejected  because  they  admit 
of  exceptions. — He  who  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  genius  and 
Btmcturo  of  our  language,  can  duly  appreciate  the  truth  of  these  remarks. 
•,•  Should  iMirents  object  to  the  Com[)endiinn,  fearing  it  will  soon  be 
destroyed  by  tlieir  children,  they  are  informed  that  the  pupil  will  nothavo 
occasion  to  use  it  one-tenth  part  as  much  as  he  will  the  book  which  it  ac- 
companies: and  l)esides,  if  it  be  destroyed,  be  will  find  all  the  defmitioua 
and  rules  which  it  contains,  recapitulated  in  the  teiies  of  Lectures 


III9T8  TO  TEACHERS  AIVD  PRIVATE  I^EARIVEBfl. 

As  this  work  proposes  a  new  mode  of  parsing,  and  pursues  an  arrange- 
ment essentially  different  from  that  generally  adopted,  it  may  not  oe 
deemed  improjHjr  for  the  author  to  give  some  directions  to  those  who  may 
bo  disix>8ed  to  use  it.  Perhaps  they  who  take.only  a  slight  view  of  the 
order  of  parsing,  will  not  consider  it  new,  but  blend  it  with  those  long 
since  adopted.  Some  writers  liave,  indeed,  attempted  plans  somewhat 
similar ;  but  in  no  instance  have  they  reduced  them  to  what  the  author 
considers  a  regular  $ystemalic  order. 

The  metlu^ts  which  they  have  generally  suggested,  require  the  teacher 
to  inlerro^nte  the  pupil  as  he -proceeds ;  or  else  ho  is  permitted  to  parse 
without  gi^nng  any  explanations  at  all.  Others  hint  that  the  learner  ought 
to  apply  definitions  in  a  general  way,  but  they  lay  down  no  systematic 
arrangement  of  ([uestions  as  his  guide.  The  systematic  order  laiu  down  in 
this  work,  if  pursued  by  the  pupil,  compels  him  to  apply  every  definition 
and  every  rule  that  appertains  to  each  word  lie  parses,  without  having  a 
question  put  to  him  by  the  teacher;  and,  in  so  tloing,  he  explains  every 
word  fully  as  he  goes  along.  This  course  enables  the  learner  to  proceed 
iiidei>enilently ;  and  proves,  at  the  same  time,  a  great  relief  to  the  instnic- 
ter.  The  convenience  and  ativantage  of  this  methoil,  are  far  greater  than 
can  Ije  (easily  conceivetl  by  one  who  is  unacquainteil  with  it.  The  author 
is,  therefore,  anxious  to  have  the  absurd  practice,  wherever  it  has  Iwen 
e^t-il>li^hed,  of  causing  learners  to  commit  and  recite  definitions  and  rules 
A  my  simultaneous  application  of  them  to  practical  examples,  imme- 

"•lished.     This  system  obviates  the  necessity  of  pursuing  such  a 

.,  .  .  .  :;r»o  of  drudgery;  for  the  young  beginner  who  pursues  it,  will 
hiivr,  ill  11  fow  weeks,  all  the  most  important  definitions  and  rules  perfectly 
rotiiniit»<-(l.  simply  by  applying  them  in  iwrsing. 

1 1  '  '•'  once  aaopted,  it  is  confi«lently  iM^lieved  that  every  teacher 

wlj.  to  consult,  either  his  own  c«»nvenieiice,  or  the  advantage  of 

his  i-.,^...-.  .. ...  readily  pursue  it  in  preference  to  any  fonner  method.     This 


12  HINTS  TO  TEACHERS. 

belief  is  founded  on  the  advantages  which  the  author  himself  has  experi 
enced  from  it  in  the  course  of  several  years,  devoted  to  the  instruction  of 
youth  and  adults.  By  pursuing  this  system,  he  can,  with  less  labor, 
Eidvance  a  pupil  farther  in  a  practical  knowledge  of  this  abstruse  science, 
in  two  months,  than  he  could  in  one  year  when  he  taught  in  the  "  old  way.'* 
It  is  presumed  that  no  instructer,  who  once  gives  this  system  a  fair  trial, 
will  doubt  the  truth  of  this  assertion. 

Perhaps  some  will,  on  a  first  view  of  the  work,  disapprove  of  the  transpo- 
sition of  many  pai'ts ;  but  whoever  examines  it  attentively,  will  find  that, 
although  the  author  has  not  followed  the  common  "  artificial  and  unnatural 
arrangement  adopted  by  most  of  his  predecessors,"  yet  he  has  endeavored 
to  pursue  a  more  judicious  one,  namely,  "  the  order  of  the  understanding." 

The  learner  should  commence,  not  by  committing  and  rehearsing,  but 
by  reading  attentively  the  first  two  lectures  several  times  over.  He  ought 
then  to  parse,  according  to  the  systematic  order,  the  examples  given  for 
that  purpose;  in  doing  which,  as  previously  stated,  he  has  an  opportunity 
of  committing  all  the  definitions  and  rules  belonging  to  the  parts  of  speech 
included  in  the  examples. 

Tjie  Compendium,  as  it  presents  to  the  eye  of  the  learner  a  condensed 
but  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole  science,  may  be  properly  considered 
an  "  Ocular  Analysis  of  the  English  language."  By  referring  to  it,  tlie 
yoimg  student  is  enabled  to  apply  all  his  definitions  and  rules  from  the  very 
connnencement  of  his  parsing.  To  some,  this  mode  of  procedure  may  seem 
ratht^r  tedious ;  but  it  must  appear  obvious  to  every  person  of  discernment, 
that  a  pupil  vdll  learn  more  by  parsing ^tje  words  critically,  and  explaining 
them  fully,  than  he  would  by  jiBxsin^  fifty  words  superficially,  and  without 
understanding  their  various  properties.  The  teacher  v^ho  puimies  this 
plah,  is  not  imder  the  necessity  of  hearing  his  pupils  recite  a  single  lesson 
of  definitions  committed  to  memory,  for  he  has  a  fair  opportunity  of  discov- 
ering their  knowledge  of  these  as  they  evince  it  in  parsing.  All  other  direc- 
tions necessary  for  the  learner  in  school,  as  well  as  for  the  private  learner, 
will  be  given  in  the  succeeding  pages  of  the  work.  Should  these  feeble 
efforts  prove  a  saving  of  much  time  and  expense  to  those  young  persona 
who  may  be  disposed  to  pursue  this  science  with  avidity,  by  enabling  them 
easily  to-acqxiire  a  critical  knowledge  of  a  branch  of  education  so  important 
and  desirable,  the  author's  fondest  anticipations  will  be  fully  realized ;  but 
should  his  work  fall  into  the  hands  of  any  who  are  expecting,  by  the  acqui- 
sition, to  become  grammarians,  and  yet,  have  not  sufficient  ambition  and 
perseverance  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  its  contente,  it  is  hoped, 
that  the  blame  for  their  nonimprovement,  will  not  be  thrown  upon  him. 


To  those  enterprising  and  intelligent  gentlemen  who  may  be  disposed  to  lectnrc  on  this 
plan,  the  author  takes  the  hberty  to  offer  a  few  hints  by  way  of  encouragement. 
Any  judicious  instructer  of  grammar,  if  he  take  the  trouble  to  make  himself  familiar 
with  the  contents  of  tho  following  pages,  will  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  pursue  this  sys- 
tem. One  remark  only  to  the  lecturer,  is  sufficient  Instead  of  causing  his  pupils  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  use  of  the  principles  by  intense  application,  let 
him  communicate  it  verbally ;  that  is,  let  him  first  take  up  one  part  of  speech,  and,  in 
an  oral  lecture,  unfold  and  explain  all  its  properties,  not  only  by  adopting  the  illustra- 
tions given  in  the  book,  but  also  by  giving  others  that  may  occur  to  his  mind  as  he  pro- 
ceeds. After  a  part  of  speech  has  been  thus  elucidated,  the  class  should  be  interroga- 
ted on  it,  and  then  taught  to  parse  it,  and  correct  errors  in  composition  under  the  rules 
that  apply  to  it  In  the  same  manner  he  may  proceed  with  the  other  parts  of  speech, 
observing,  however,  to  recapitulate  occasionally,  until  the  learners  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  whatever  principles  may  have  been  presented.  If  this  plan  be  faith- 
fully pursued,  rapid  progress,  on  the  part  of  the  learner,  will  be  the  inevitablie  result ; 
and  that  teacher  who  pursues  It,  cannot  fail  of  acquiring  distinction,  and  an  enviable 
popularity  in  his  profession.  '  S.  RIRKHAM. 


FAMILIAR    LECTURES 

ON 

ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


LECTURE  I. 
DIVISIONS  OF  GRAMMAR.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

TO  THB  YOUNG  LEARNER. 

You  are  about  to  enter  upon  one  of  the  most  useful,  and,  when 
rightly  pursued,  one  of  the  most  interesting  studies  in  the  wholo 
circle  of  science.     If,    however,  you,  like  many  a  misguided 
youth,  are  under  the  impression  that  the  study  of  grammar  is 
dry  and  irksome,  and  a  matter  of  little  consequence,  I  trust  I  shall 
succeed  in  removing  from  your  mind,  all  such  false  notions  and 
ungrounded  prejudices;  for  I  will  endeavor  to  convince  you,  be- 
fore I  close  these  lectures,  that  this  is  not  only  a  pleasing  study, 
but  one  of  real  and  substantial  utility ;  a  study  that  directly  tends 
to  adorn  and  dignify  human  nature,  and  meliorate  the  condition 
of  man.     Grammar  is  a  leading  branch  of  that  learning  which 
alone  is  capable  of  unfolding  and  maturing  the  mental  powers,  and 
of  elevating  man  to  his  proper  rank  in  the  scale  of  intellectual 
existence;^ — of  that  learning  which  lifts  the  soul  from  e>arth,  and 
enables  it  to  hold  converse  with  a  thousand  worlds.     In  pursuing 
any  and  every  other  path  of  science,  you  will  discover  the  truth 
of  these  remarks,  and  feel  its  force ;  for  you  will  find,  that,  as 
grammar  opens  the  door  to  every  department  of  learning,  a  knowl- 
edge of  it  is  indispensable :  and  should  you  not  aspire  at  distinc- 
tion in  the  republic  of  letters,  this  knowledge  cannot  fail  of  being 
serviceable  to  you,  even  if  you  are  destined  to  pass  through  the 
humblest  walks  of  life.     I  think  it  is  clear,  that,  in  one  point  of 
view,  grammatical  knowledge  possesses  a  decisive  advantage  over 
every  other  branch  of  learning.     Penmanship,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, astronomy,  botany,  chemistry,  and  so  on,  are  highly  use- 
ful in  their  respective  places;  but  not  one  of  them  is  so  univer- 
«ally  applicable  to  practical  purposes,  as  this.     In  every  situa- 
tion, under  all  circumstances,  on  all  occasions  ; — when  you  speak, 

2 


14  .tNGUSK   GRAMMAE. 

read,  write,  or  think,  a  knowledge  of  grammar  is  of  essentia, 
utility. 

Doubtless  you  have  heard  some  persons  assert,  that  they  could 
detect  and  correct  any  error  in  language  by  the  ear,  and  speak 
and  write  accurately  without  a  knowledge  of  grammar.  Now 
your  own  observation  will  soon  convince  you,  that  this  assertion 
is  incorrect.  A  man  of  refined  taste,  may,  by  perusing  good  au- 
thors, and  conversing  with  the  learned,  acquire  that  knowledge  of 
language  which  will  enable  him  to  avoid  those  glaring  errors  that 
offend  the  ear;  but  there  are  other  errors  equally  gross,  which 
have  not  a  harsh  sound,  and,  consequently,  which  cannot  be  de- 
tected without  a  knowledge  of  the  rules  that  are  violated.  Be- 
lieve me,  therefore,  when  I  say,  that  without  the  knowledge  and 
application  of  grammar  rules,  it  is  impossible  for  any  one  to  think, 
speak,  read,  or  write  with  accuracy.  From  a  want  of  such 
knowledge,  many  often  express  their  ideas  in  a  manner  so  im- 
proper and  obscure  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  any  one  to  un- 
derstand them :  their  language  frequently  amounts,  not  only  to 
had  sense,  but  Tion-sense.  In  other  instances  several  different 
meanings  may  be  affixed  to  the  words  they  employ ;  and  what 
is  still  worse,  is,  that  not  unfrequently  their  sentences  are  so 
constructed,  as  to  convey  a  meaning  quite  the  reverse  of  that  which 
they  intended.  Nothing  of  a  secular  nature  can  be  more  worthy 
of  your  attention,  then,  than  the  acquisition  of  grammatical  knowl- 
edge. 

The  path  which  leads  to  grammatical  excellence,  is  not  all  the 
way  smooth  and  flowery,  but  in  it  you  will  find  some  thorns  inter- 
spersed, and  some  obstacles  to  be  surmounted ;  or,  in  simple  lan- 
guage, you  will  find,  in  the  pursuit  of  this  science,  many  intri- 
cacies which  it  is  rather  difficult  for  the  juvenile  mmd  completely 
to  unravel.  I  shall,  therefore,  as  I  proceed,  address  you  in  plain 
language,  and  endeavor  to  illustrate  every  principle  in  a  man- 
ner so  clear  and  simple,  that  you  will  be  able,  if  you  exercise 
your  mind,  to  understand  its  nature,  and  apply  it  to  practice  as 
you  go  along ;  for  I  would  rather  give  you  one  useful  idea,  than 
fifty  high-sounding  words,  the  meaning  of  which  you  would  pro- 
bably be  unable  to  comprc'hend. 

Should  you  ever  have  any  doubts  concerning  the  meaning  of 
a  word,  or  the  sense  of  a  sentence,  you  must  not  be  discouraged, 
but  persevere,  either  by  studying  my  explanations,  or  by  asking 
some  person  competent  to  inform  you,  till  you  obtain  a  clear  con- 
ception of  it,  and  till  all  doubts  are  removed.  By  carefully  ex- 
amining,  and  frequently  reviewing,  the  following  lectures,  you 
will  soon  be  able  to  discern  the  grammatical  construction  of  our 


EN(iLl:$lI    UUAMMAR.  16 

/anguago,  and  fix  in  your  mind  the  principles  by  which  it  is  gov 
emed.  Nothing  delights  youth  so  much,  as  a  clear  and  distinct 
knowledge  of  any  branch  of  science  which  they  are  pursuing ; 
and, on  the  other  hand,  I  know  they  are  apt  to  be  discouraged  with 
any  branch  of  learning  which  requires  much  time  and  attention 
to  be  understood.  It  is  the  evidence  of  a  weak  mind,  however, 
to  be  discouraged  by  the  obstacles  with  which  the  young  learner 
must  expect  to  meet ;  and  the  best  means  that  you  can  adopt,  in 
order  to  enable  you  to  overcome  the  difficulties  that  arise  in  the 
incipient  stage  of  your  studies,  is  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  think- 
ing meihodically  and  soundly  on  all  subjects  of  importance  which 
may  engage  your  attention.  Nothing  will  be  more  effectual  in 
enabling  you  to  think,  as  well  as  to  speak  and  write,  correctly, 
than  the  study  of  English  grammar,  according  to  the  method  of 
pursuing  it  as  prescribed  in  the  following  pages.  This  system  is 
designed,  and,  I  trust,  well  calculated,  to  expand  and  strengthen 
the  intellectual  faculties,  in  as  much  as  it  involves  a  process  by 
which  the  mind  is  addressed,  and  a  knowledge  of  grammar  com- 
municated in  an  interesting  and  familiar  manner. 

You  are  aware,  my  young  friend,  that  you  live  in  an  age  of 
light  and  knowledge  ; — an  age  in  which  science  and  the  arts  are 
marching  onward  with  gigantic  strides.  You  live,  too,  in  a  land 
of  liberty ; — a  land  on  which  the  smiles  of  Heaven  beam  with 
uncommon  refulgence.  The  trump  of  the  warrior  and  the  clang- 
or of  arms  no  longer  echo  on  our  mountains,  or  in  our  valleys ; 
"the  garments  dyed  in  blood  have  passed  away ;"  the  mighty  strug- 
gle for  independence  is  over ;  and  you  live  to  enjoy  the  rich  boon 
of  freedom  and  prosperity  which  was  purchased  with  the  blood 
of  our  fathers.  These  considerations  forbid  that  you  should  ever 
be  so  unmindful  of  your  duty  to  your  country,  to  your  Creator,  to 
yourself,  and  to  succeeding  generations,  as  to  be  content  to  grovel 
in  ignorance.  Remember  that  "  knowledge  is  power ;  "  that  an 
enlightened  and  a  virtuous  people  can  never  be  enslaved  ;  and 
that,  on  the  intelligence  of  our  youth,  rest  the  future  liberty,  the 

1>rosperity,  the  happiness,  the  grandeur,  and  the  glory  of  our  be 
oved  country.  Goon,  then,  with  a  laudable  ambition,  and  an  un- 
yielding perseverance,  in  the  path  which  leads  to  honor  and  re- 
nown. Press  for\*'ard.  Go,  and  gather  laurels  on  the  hill  of  sci- 
ence ;  linger  among  her  unfading  beauties;  "drink  deep'*  of 
her  crystal  fountain  ;  and  then  join  in  "  the  march  of  fame.  "  Bo- 
tome  learned  and  virtuous,  and  you  will  be  great.  Love  God 
t(id  srrvr.  liiin    ni\i\  v.)u  'lill  !»»>  happy. 


16  '        LANGUAGE.  ^  J 

Language,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  implies  those  signs  by  j 
which  men  and  brutes  communicatfe  to  each  other  their  thoughts,  ! 
affections,  and  desires.  i 

Language  may  be  <iivided,  1.  into  natural  and  artificial;  2.  I 
into  spoken  and  written.  ; 

Natural  Language  consists  in  the  use  of  those  natural  signs  ' 
which  different  animals  employ  in  communicating  their  feelings  I 
one  to  another.  The  meaning  of  these  signs  all  perfectly  under-  | 
stand  by  the  principles  of  their  nature.  This  language  is  com-  J 
mon  both  to  man  and  brute.  The  elements  of  natural  language  ; 
in  man,  may  be  reduced  to  three  kinds;  modulations  of  the  voice,  ■ 
gestures,  and  features.  By  means  of  these,  two  savages  who  ; 
have  no  common,  artificial  language,  can  communicate  their  ; 
thoughts  in  a  manner  quite  intelligible :  they  can  ask  and  refuse,  i 
affirm  and  deny,  threaten  and  supplicate ;  they  can  traffick,  enter  ' 
into  contracts,  and  plight  their  faith.  The  language  of  brutes  J 
consists  in  the  use  of  those  inarticulate  sounds  by  which  they  ex-  ! 
press  their  thoughts  and  affections.  Thus,  the  chirping  of  a  bird,  i 
the  bleating  of  a  lamb,  the  neighing  of  a  horse,  and  the  growling,  | 
whining,  and  barking  of  a  dog,  are  the  language  of  those  animals,  ; 
respectively.  j 

Artificial  Language  consists  in  the  use  of  words,  by  means 
of  which  mankind  are  enabled  to  communicate  their  thoughts  to    j 
one  another. — In  order  to  assist  you  in  comprehending  what  is    I 
meant  by  the  term  word,  I  will  endeavor  to  illustrate  the  meaning    j 
of  the  term.  J 

Idea.  The  notices  which  we  gain  by  sensation  and  percep-  I 
tion,  and  which  are  treasured  up  in  the  mind  to  be  the  materials  \ 
of  thinking  and  knowledge,  are  denominated  ideas.  For  exam-  j 
pie,  when  you  place  your  hand  upon  a  piece  of  ice,  a  sensation  i 
is  excited  which  we  call  coldness.  That  faculty  which  notices  j 
this  sensation  or  change  produced  in  the  mind,  is  called  percep-  'I 
tion ;  and  the  abstract  notice  itself,  or  notion  you  form  of  this  j 
sensation,  is  denominated  an  idea.  This  being  premised,  we  will  ^ 
now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  words.  ' 

Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common  consent,  not  as  i 
natural,  but  as  artificial,  signs  of  our  ideas.  Words  have  no  mean-  ^ 
ing  in  themselves.  They  are  merely  the  artificial  representatives  - 
of  those  ideas  affixed  to  them  by  compact  or  agreement  among  1 
those  who  use  them.  In  English,  for  instance,  to  a  particular  \ 
kind  of  metal  we  assign  the  name  gold  ;  not  because  there  is,  in  "" 
*hat  sound,  any  peculiar  aptiiess  which  suggests  the  idea  we  wish     J 


GRAMMAR.  17 

to  convey,  but  tlie  application  of  that  sound  to  tlie  idea  signified, 
h»  an  act  altogether  arbitrary.  Were  there  any  natural  connex- 
ion between  the  sound  and  the  thing  signified,  the  word  gold  would 
convey  the  same  idea  to  the  jx;ople  of  other  countries  as  it  does 
to  ourselves.  But  such  is  not  the  fact.  Other  nations  make  use 
of  diflerent  sounds  to  signify  the  same  thing.  Thus,  aurum  de- 
ootcs  the  same  idea  in  Latin,  and  or  in  French.  Hence  it  follows, 
hat  it  is  by  custom  only  we  learn  to  annex  particular  ideas  to 
particular  sounds. 

Spoken  Laa'guage  or  speech  is  made  up  of  articulate  sounds 
uttered  by  the  human  voice. 

The  voice  is  formed  by  air  which,  after  it  passes  through  the 
glottis,  (a  small  aperture  in  the  upj^^pr  part  of  the  wind-pipe,)  is 
modulated  by  the  action  of  the  throat,  palate,  teeth,  tongue,  lips, 
and  nostrils. 

Written  Language.  The  elements  of  written  language  con- 
sist of  letters  or  characters,  which,  by  common  consent  and  gen- 
eral usage,  are  combined  into  words,  and  thus  made  the  ocular 
representatives  of  the  articulate  sounds  uttered  by  the  voice. 


GRAMMAR  is  the  science  of  language. 

Grammar  may  be  divided  into  two  species,  universal  and  par- 
ucular. 

Universal  Grammar  explains  the  principles  which  are  com- 
mon to  all  languages. 

Particular  Grammar  applies  those  general  principles  to  a 
particular  lanj];uage,  modifying  them  according  to  its  genius,  and 
the  established  practice  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers  by 
whom  it  is  used.     Hence, 

The  established  practice  of  the  best  speakers  and  uniters  of  any 
language,  is  the  standard  of  grammatical  accuraey  in  the  use  of 
that  lanrrnafrc. 

By  !  ,  established  practice y  is  implied  reputable,  nation- 

al, an<i  _  usage.     A  usage  becomes  good  and  legal,  when 

it  has  been  long  and  adopted. 

The  best  speakers  <;  :  r*,  or  such  as  may  be  considered 

good  authority  in  the  use  of  language,  are  those  who  are  deserv- 
edly in  high  estimation  ;  speakers,  distinguished  for  their  elo- 

2* 


18  ESQLtSa.  QBASLMAJL. 

cution  and  other  lierary  attainments,  and  writers,  eminent  Ibi 
correct  taste,  solid  matter,  and  refined  manner. 

In  the  grammar  of  a  ^r/ec^  language,  no  rules  should  be  admitted,  but 
Buch  as  are  founded  on  fixed  principles,  arising  out  of  the  genius  of  that  lan- 
guage and  the  nature  of  things ;  but  our  language  being  t7»-perfect,  it  be- 
comes necessary,  in  a  practical  treatise,  like  this,  to  adopt  some  rules  to  direct 
us  in  the  use  of  speech  as  related  by  custom.  If  we  had  a  permanent 
and  surer  standard  than  capricious  custom  to  regulate  us  in  the  transmission 
of  thought,  great  inconvemence  would  be  avoided.  They,  however,  wTio 
introduce  usages  which  depart  from  the  analogy  and  philosophy  of  a  lan- 
guage, are  conspicuous  among  the  nmnber  of  those  who  form  ihat  languagev 
and  have  power  to  control  it. 

Language  is  conventional,  and  not  only  invented,  but,  in  its  progressive 
advancement,  varied  for  purposes  of  practical  convenience.  Hence  it  as- 
sxmies  any  and  every  form  which  those  who  make  use  of  it  choose  to 
give  it.  We  are,  therefore,  as  rational  and  practical  grammarians,  compelled 
to  submit  to  the  necessity  of  th^case ;  to  take  the  language  as  it  is,  and 
not  as  it  should  be,  and  bow  to  custom. 

Philosophical  Grammar  inveistigates  and  develops  the  princi- 
ples of  language,  as  founded  in  the  nature  of  things  and  the  origi- 
nal laws  of  thought.  It  also  discusses  the  grounds  of  the  classifi- 
cation of  words,  and  explains  those  procedures  which  practical 
grammar  lays  down  for  our  observance. 

Practical  Grammar  adopts  the  most  convenient  classification 
of  the  words  of  a  language,  lays  down  a  system  of  definitions 
and  rules,  founded  on  scientific  principles  and  good  usage,. illus- 
trates their  nature  and  design,  and  enforces  their  application. 

Principle.  'A  principle  in  grammar  is  a  peculiar  construc- 
tion of  the  language,  sanctioned  by  good  usage. 

Definition.  A  definition  in  grammar  is  a  principle  of  lan- 
guage expressed  in  a  definite  form. 

Rule.  A  rule  describes  the  peculiar  construction  or  circum- 
stantial relation  of  words,  which  custom  has  established  for  our 
observance. 


ENC^I^ISH  GRAMMAR. 

English  Qrammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  wri- 
ting the  English  language  with  propriety. 

Grammar  teaches  us  how  to  use  words  in  a  proper  manner. 
The  most  important  use  of  that  faculty  called  speech,  is,  to  con- 
vey  our  thoughts  to  others.  If,  therefore,  we  have  a  store  of 
words,  and  even  know  what  they  signify,  they  will  be  of  no  real 
use  to  us  unless  we  can  also  apply  them  to  practice,  and  mako 


OETHOORAPHY.  19 

ifiein  answer  the  purpases  for  which  they  were  invented.  Grant' 
mar,  well  understood,  enables  us  to  express  our  thoughts  fully 
and  ckarly ;  and,  consequently,  in  a  manner  which  will  duly 
the  ingonuity  of  nmn  to  give  our  words  any  other  meaning  than 
that  which  we  ourselves  intend  thcin  to  express.  To  be  able  to 
s{)eak  and  write  our  vernacular  tongue  with  accuracy  and  ele- 
gailte,  is, certainly,  a  consideration  of  the  highest  moment. 

^  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts  j 

1.  Orthography,  3.  Syntax, 

2.  Etymology,  4.  Prosody. 
Orthography  teaches  the  nature  and  powers  of 

letters,  and  the  just  method  of  spelling  words. 

Orthography  means  icord-making,  or  spelling.  It  teaclios  us 
the  dilFercnt  kinds  and  sounds  of  letters,  how  to  combine  them 
into  syllables,  and  syllables  into  words. 

As  this  is  one  of  the  first  steps  in  the  path  of  literature,  I  pre- 
sume you  already  understand  the  nature  and  use  of  letters,  and 
the  just  method  of  spelling  words.  If  you  do,  it  is  unnecessary 
for  you  to  dwell  long  on  this  part  of  grammar,  which,  though 
very  important,  is  rather  dry  and  uninteresting,  for  it  has  noth- 
ing to  do  with  parsing  and  analyzing  language.  And,  therefore, 
if  you  can  spell  correctly j  you  may  omit  Orthography,  and  com- 
menco  with  Etymology  and  Syntax, 

Orthography  treats,  1st,  of  Letters,  2ndly,  of  Syl- 
lables, and  3dly,  of  Words. 

I.  Letters.  A  letter  is  the  first  principle,  or 
least  part,  of  a  word. 

The  English  Alphabet  contains  twenty-si:?  letters. 

They  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  that  can  be  perfectly  sounded 
by  itself.  The  vowels  are  a,  e,  t,  o,  t/,  and  some- 
times w  and  y.  W  and  y  are  consonants  when  they 
begin  a  word  or  syHable  ;  buf  in  every  other  situation 
they  are  vowels. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  that  cannot  be  perfectly 
sounded  without  the  help  of  a  vowel;  as,  h,  d,  /,  /. 
All  letters  except  the  vowels  are  consonants. 


iO  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi-vowels 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  all  without  th( 

aid  of  a  vowel.     They  are  b,  jp,  ^,  d,  k,  and  c  and  £  \ 

hard.                                                   .                         "^  I 

The  semi -vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of  them-  \ 

selves.     They  are  /,  /,  m,  n,  r,  v,  s,  z,  x,  and  c  and  g  \ 

soft.  j 

I 

>'  Fonr  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely,  I,  m,  n,  r,  are  called  liquids,  because 

^they  readily  unite  with  other  consonants,  and  flow,  as  it  were,  into  their  ' 

sounds.  i 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  itvo   vowels,  pro-  i 

nounced  by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as  oi  in  I 

voice,  ou  in  sound.  i 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  pro-  | 

nounced  in  like  manner;  as, caw  in  beau,  ieiv  in  view,  i 

A  proper  diphthong  has  both  the  vowels  sounded ;  as,  ou  in  oimce.     Au  ^ 
improper  diphUiong  has  only  one  of  the  vowels  sounded ;  as,  oa  in  boat. 

II.  Syllables.     A  Syllable  is  a  distinct  sound,  ut-  \ 
tered  by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice  ;  as,  a,  an,  ant.  | 

A  word  of  one  syllable,  is  termed  a  Monosyllable ;  j 

a  word  of  two  syllables,  a  Dissyllable ;  a  word  of  three  i 

syllables,  a  Trisyllable ;  a  word  of  four  or  more  sylla-  . 

bles,  a  Polysyllable.  ; 

III.  Words.     Words  are  articulate   sounds,  used  \ 
by  common  consent,  as  signs  of  our  ideas.  ' 

Words  are  of  two  sorts,  primitive  and  derivative.  \ 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced  • 

to  a  simpler  word  in  the  language ;  as,  maji,  good,  \ 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  reduced  '■ 

to  a  simpler  word ;  as,  manful,  goodness.  j 

There  is  little  or  no  difference  between  derivative  and  compound  words,  i 

The  terminations  or  added  syllables,  such  as  ed,  es,  ess,  est,  an,  ant,  en,  cnce,  j 

ent,  dom,  hood,  ly,  ous,ful,  ness,  and  the  like,  were,  originally,  distinct  and  \ 

separate  words,  which,  by  long  use,  have  been  conti-acted,  and  made  to  J 

coalesce  with  otiier  words.  I 


SOUNDS  OF  TBB  LETTEBS.  31 


OP  THE  SOUNDS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

K.—A  has  four  (>ounds;  the  long;  as  m  namc.lasin;  tlio  broad;  aa  in 
cali,  wall:  tbo  lihort;  as  iu/agot,  glau ;  and  tbo  flat,  Italian  sound;  as  in 
bar    ^■■"■- 

I  I  diphlhouc,  aa,  has  the  short  sound  of  a  in  Balaam,  Canaan, 

bai  '•  long  sound  of  a  in  Baal,  Goal,  Aaron. 

Ttui  Latin  diphthong,  ee,  has  the  long  sound  of  «  in  tmigma,  Catar,  and 
some  other  words.  But  many  authors  reject  this  useless  excrescence  of 
antiquity,  and  write,  enigma,  Cesar. 

The  diphthong,  at,  has  the  long  sound  of  a;  as  in  pail,  $aU;  except  in 
plaid,  taid,  again,  raillery ,  fountain,  Britain,  and  some  others. 

Au  \ji  sounded  like  broad  a  in  taught,  like  flat  a  in  aunt,  like  long  o  in 
koMiboy,  and  like  short  o  in  laurel. 

Aw  has  always  the  sound  of  broad  a;  as  in  hawl,  crawl. 

Ay  has  the  long  sound  of  a;  as  in  pay,  delay. 

B.—B  has  only  one  sound  ;  as  in  baker,  number,  chub. 

B  is  silent  when  it  follows  m  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  lamb.  Sue.  except 
in  accumb,  rhomb,  and  succumb.  It  is  also  silent  before  t  in  the  same  sylla- 
ble ;  as  in  doubt,  debtor,  subtle,  Su:. 

C. — C  sounds  like  k  before  a,  o,  u,  r,  I,  t,  and  at  the  end  of  syllables ;  as 
in  cart,  cottage,  curious,  craft,  tract,  cloth;  victim, flaccid.  It  has  the  sound 
of  s  before  e,  i,  and  y ;  as  in  centre,  cigar,  mercy.  C  has  the  somid  of  sh 
when  followed  by  a  diphthong,  and  is  preceded  by  the  accent,  either  primary 
or  secondary  ;  as  in  social,  pronunciation,  &c. ;  and  of  z  in  discern,  sacrifice, 
tiee,  suffice.     It  is  mute  in  arbuscle,  czar,  czarina,  endict,  victuals,  muscle. 

Ch  IS  commonly  sounded  like  tsh;  as  in  church,  chin;  but  in  words  de- 
rived from  the  ancient  languages,  it  has  the  soimd  of  il;  as  hi  chemist,  chorus; 
and  likewise  in  foreign  names,  as  in  Achish,  Enoch.  In  words  from  tlio 
French,  ch  sounds  like  sh;  as  in  chaise,  chevalier;  and  also  like  sh  when 
preceded  by  /  or  n;  as  in  milch,  bench,  clinch,  &c. 

Ch  in  arch,  before  a  vowel,  sounds  like  ir;  as  in  arch-angel,  except  in 
arched,  archery,  archer,  archenemy ;  but  before  a  consonant,  it  sounds  like 
tsh  ;  as  in  archbishop.     Ch  is  silent  in  schedule,  schism,  yacht,  drachm. 

D. — D  has  one  uniform  sound ;  as  in  death,  bandage.  It  sounds  like  dj  or 
j  when  followed  by  long  «  preceded  by  the  accent ;  as  in  educate,  verdure. 
It  also  soimds  like^'  in  grandeur,  soldier. 

The  termination,  ed,  m  adjectives  and  participial  adjectives,  retains  its  dis- 
tinct sound ;  as,  a  reiek-ed  man,  a  leam-ed  man,  bless-ed  are  tlio  meek ;  but  in 
Terbs  the  e  is  generally  dropped;  aa,  passed,  toalked,  flashed,  aimed,  rolled^ 
4bc  which  are  pronounced,  past,  valkt,flashi,  aimd,  rold. 

E. — E  has  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  scheme,  severe ;  a  short  sound  ;  as  in  men, 
tent;  and  somedineM  the  sound  of  flat  a;  as  in  sergeant;  and  of  short  i ;  as 
in  yes,  pretty,  England,  and  generally  in  the  imaccentcd  terminations,  es, 
et,  en. 

F. — F  has  one  unvaried  sound ;  as  in  fancy,  muffin ;  except  in  of,  which, 
wlien  uncompounded,  is  pronounced  ov.  A  wive's. portion,  a  calve's  head, 
•re  improp«»r.     They  should  be,  vife^s  portion,  ealfs  head. 

Q. — G  has  two  sounds.  It  is  hard  before  a,  o,  u,  I,  and  r,  and  at  the  end 
of  a  word ;  a*  in  gay,  go,  gun,  glory;  bag,  snug.  It  is  soft  before  e,  i,  and 
f;  aa  in  genius,  ginger,  Egypt.  Exceptions;  get,  getcgaw,  gimlet,  and  some 
oth«»rB.     G  is  sileDt  before  n ;  as  in  gnash. 

}  I . — H  has  an  artiealale  sound ;  as  in  hat,  kortt,  kn/L  It  is  silent  after  r; 
ns  in  rhrJorie.  rkmbarb. 


2M  •OUNDS   OF   THB   LETTERS. 

I. — /has  a  long  sound ;  as  in  fine ;  and  a  short  one;  as  'mjin.  Before  r  it 
Is  often  sounded  like  «  short;  as  in  Jlrst,  third;  and  in  other  words,  like 
short  e;  as  m  birth,  virtue.  In  some  words  it  has  the  sound  of  long  c ;  as 
in  machine,  profile. 

J. — J  has  the  sound  of  soft  g;  except  in  haUelujak,  in  which  it  is  pro- 
nounced like  y. 

K. — K  has  the  sound  of  e  hard,  and  is  used  before  e,  i,  and  y,  where  e 
would  be  soft ;  as  kept,  skirt,  murky.  It  is  silent  before  n ;  as  in  knife,  knell, 
knocker. 

L. — L  has  always  a  soft  liquid  sound ;  as  in  love,  biUoto,  It  is  often  silent; 
as  in  half,  talk,  almond. 

M. — M  has  always  the  same  sound ;  as  in  murmur,  monumenlal;  except  in 
comptroller,  which  is  pronounced  controller. 

N. — N  has  two  somids;  the  one  pure;  as  in  man,  net,  noble;  the  other  a 
compound  sound;  as  in  ankle,  banquet,  distinct,  &c.,  pronounced  angkl, 
bangkwet.     N  final  is  silent  when  preceded  by  w;  as  in  hymn,  autumn. 

O. — O  has  a  long  sound ;  as  in  note,  over;  and  a  short  one ;  as  in  not,  got. 
It  has  the  sound  of  u  short ;  as  in  son,  attorney,  doth,  does ;  and  generally  in 
the  terminations,  op,  ot,  or,  on,  am,  ol,  od.  Sue. 

P. — P  has  but  one  uniform  sound;  as  in  pin,  slipper;  except  in  cupboard, 
clapboard,  where  it  has  the  sound  of  b.  It  is  mute  in  psalm,  Ptolemy,  tempt, 
empty,  corps,  rasj^erry,  and  receipt. 

Ph  has  the  sound  of  /  in  philosophy,  Philip ;  and  of  v  in  nephew,  Stephen. 

Q. — Q  is  sounded  like  k,  and  is  always  followed  by  u  pronounced  like  w; 
as  in  quadrant,  queen,  conquest. 

R. — R  has  a  rough  soimd;  as  in  Rome,  river,  rage;  and  a  smooth  one; 
as  in  bard,  card,  regard.  In  the  unaccented  termination  re,  the  r  is  sounded 
after  the  c;  as  in  fibre,  centre. 

S. — iSf  has  a  flat  sound  like  z ;  as  in  besom,  nasal;  and,  at  the  beginning  of 
words,  a  sharp,  hissing  sound ;  as  in  saiTit,  sister,  sample.  It  has  the  sound 
of  sh  when  preceded  by  the  accent  and  another  »  or  a  liquid,  and  followed 
by  a  diphthong  or  long  u ;  as  in  expulsion,  censure.  S  sounds  like  zh  when 
preceded  by  the  accent  and  a  vowel,  and  followed  by  a  diphthong  or  long  u; 
as  in  brasier,  usual.     It  is  mute  in  isle,  corps,  demesne,  viscount. 

T. — T  is  sounded  m  take,  temper.  T  before  u,  when  the  accent  precedes, 
and  generally  before  eou.  sounds  like  tsh ;  as,  nature,  virtue,  righteous,  are 
pronoimced  natshure,  virtshue,  richeus.  Ti  before  a  vowel,  precetled  by  the 
accent,  has  the  sound  of  sh;  as  in  salvation,  negotiation ;  except  in  such  words 
as  tierce,  tiara,  Sz^c.  and  unless  an  s  goes  before ;  as,  question ;  and  excepting 
also  derivatives  from  words  ending  m  ty  ;  as  in  mighty,  mightier. 

Th,  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end  of  words,  is  sharp;  as  in  thick, pom- 
ther,  breath.     Exceptions ;  then,  booth,  worthy,  &c. 

U. — U  has  three  sounds;  a  long;  as  in  mule,  eubie ;  a  short;  as  in  di$U^ 
custard;  and  an  obtuse  soimd ;  asm  full,  bushel.  It  is  pronounced  like  short 
e  in  bury ;  and  like  short  t  in  busy,  business. 

V. — Y  has  uniformly  the  sound  of  flat/;  as  in  vanity,  love. 

Yf.—W,  when  a  consonant,  has  its  sound,  which  is  heard  in  iro,  hevare. 
Wis  silent  before  r ; ' as  in  wry,  wrap,  wrinkle ;  and  also  in  antwer,  sword, 
&c.     Before  h  it  is  pronounced  as  if  written  after  the  h;  as  in  why,  wAew, 
what ; — hwy,  hwen,  hwat.     When  heard  as  a  voweP,  it  takes  the  sound  of  i» ; 
as  in  draw,  crew,  now. 

X. — X  has  a  sharp  sound,  like  ks,  when  it  ends  a  syllable  witii  tke  accent 
on  it ;  as,  exit,  exercise ;  or  when  it  precedes  an  accented  syCabJe  which 
begins  with  any  consonant  except  h;  as,  excuse,  extent;  but  v^hjeu.  the  fc^- 
lowing  accented  syllable  begins  with  a  vowel  or  h,  it  bap^  generally,  a  ft  < 


RTTLBS  FOR  8PELLIIV9.  29 

•ound,  like  ffxf  BM\n  i  '  ^rt.    X  has  the  Bound  of  Z at  tho  b*.gmning 

of  proper  names  of  ( i  :;il ;  as  in  Xanthut,  Xenophon,  Xerxet. 

y. —  y,  when  a  emu :,  ...tj  iu  pro|>er  sound;  as  m  youth,  York,  yea, 

new-year.  Wh(*n  y  \a  einptoyed  as  a  vowel,  it  has  exactly  tho  sound  thati 
would  have  in  the  saine  situation;  as  iu  rhyme,  system, parly, pyramid. 

Z. — Z  baa  tho  soaiui  of  flat « ;  a*  in  freeze,  brazen, 

RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  a  word  by  its 
proper  letters. 

The  following  rules  are  deemed  important  in  practice,  al- 
though they  assist  us  in  spelling  only  a  small  portion  of  the  words 
of  our  language.  This  useful  art  is  to  be  chiefly  acquired  by 
studying  the  spelling-book  and  dictionary,  and  by  strict  atten> 
tion  in  reading. 

Rule  i.  Monosyllables  ending  iny,  /,  or  *,  double  the  final  or 
ending  consonant  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  single  vowel ;  as^sUift 
mill,  pass.  Exceptions ;  o/*,  ifj  is,  aSy  has,  wds,  yes,  his,  this,  us, 
and  Uius. 

^aUe  Orthography  for  the  learner  to  correct. — Bo  thou  like  the  gale  that 
moves  the  gras,  to  those  who  ask  thy  aid. — The  aged  hero  comes  forth  on 
his  staf ;  his  pray  hair  glitters  in  the  beam. — Shal  mortal  num  he  more  just 
than  God  ? — Few  know  the  value  of  healtli  til  they  lose  it. — Our  muuners 
sliould  be  neither  gros,  nor  excessively  refined. 

And  that  is  not  the  lark,  whoso  notes  do  beat 
..  Tho  vanity  heaven  so  high  above  our  heads: 
I  have  more  care  to  stay,  than  wil  to  go. 

Rule  ii.  Monosyllables  ending  in  any  consonant  l>ut  f,  t,  or 
8,  never  double  the  final  consonant  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel ;  as,  man,  hat.  E.xceptions ;  add,  ehh,  bull,  egg,  odd,  err, 
inn,  bunn,  purr,  and  buzz. 

False  Chih/)graphy. — None  ever  went  smld  from  Fingal. — He  rejoicetl  over 
his  sonn. — Clonar  lies  bleeding  oiythe  bodd  of  death. — Many  a  trapp  is  set 
to  insnare  tlie  feet  of  yoiiUi. 

The  weary  simn  has  made  a  golden  sett, 

And,  by  the  bright  track  of  his  golden  carr. 

Gives  token  of  a  goodly  day  to-morrow. 

Rule  hi.  Words  ending  in  y,  form  the  plural  of  nouns,  the 
persons  of  verbs,  participial  nouns,  past  participles,  comparatives, 
and  superlatives,  by  changing  y  into  i,  when  the  y  is  preceded  by 
a  conscmaiU ;  as,  spy,  spies ;  I  carry,  thou  carriesi,  he  carries ; 
eatrier,  carried  ;  happy,  hajtpier,  happiest. 

The  present  participle  in  ing,  retains  the  y  that  i  may  not  bf 
doubled  ;  as,  carry,  carrying. 


SJi  OETHOGRAPHY.  | 

1 

But  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel^  in  such  instances  as  the  ' 

above,  it  is  not  changed  into  i ;  as,  hoy,  hoys ;  I  clay,  he  cloys ;  \ 

except  in  the  words  lay,  pay,  and  say ;  from  which  are  formed  | 

laid,  paid,  and  said;  and  their  compounds,  unpaid,  unsaid,  &c.  ] 

False  Orthography. — Our  fancys  should  be  governed  by  reason. — Thou  * 
wearyest  thyself  m  vain. — He  denyed  hhnself  all  sinful  pleasures.  '> 

Win  straiing  souls  with  modesty  and  love ; 
Cast  none  aw^ay. 
The  truly  good  man  is  not  dismaied  by  poverty. 

Ere  fresh  morning  streak  the  east,  we  most  be  risen  to  reform  yonder 
allies  gi-een. 

Rule  iv.     When  words  ending  in  y,  assume  an  additional  syl-  ; 

lable  beginning  with  a  consonant,  the  y,  if  it  is  preceded  by  a  con-  { 

sonant,  is  commonly  changed  to  i;  as,  happy,  happily,  happiness.  '< 

But  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  in  such  instances,  it  is  very  \ 

rarely  changed  to  i  ;  as,  coy,  coyless  ;  boy,  boyish  ;  boyhood  ;  joy,  \ 
joyless,  joyful. 

False  Orthography. — His  mind  is  uninfluenced  by  faiicyful  humors. — The 
vessel  w^as  heaN^yly  laden. — When  we  act  against  conscience,  we  become  the  , 
destroiers  of  our  own  peace.  --• 

Christiana,  mayden  of  heroic  mien !  \ 

Star  of  the  north !  of  noi-them  stars  the  queen !  ' 

Rule  v.  Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  sylla-  i 
ble,  ending  with  a  single  consonant  that  is  preceded  by  a  single  | 
vowel,  double  that  consonant  when  they  assume  another  syllable  \ 
that  begins  with  a  vowel ;  as,  wit,  witty  ;  thin,  thinnish  ;  to  abet,  an  \ 
abetter. 

But  if  a  diphthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  ; 
syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single ;  as,  to  toil,  toiling  ;  to  offer,  I 
an  offering;  maid,  maiden.  \ 

False  Orthography. — The  business  of  to-day,  should  not  be  defered  till  to-  ] 
morrow. — That  law  is  annuled. — When  we  have  outstriped  our  errors  we  i 
have  won  the  race. — By  defering  our  repentance,  we  accumulate  our  sor-  < 
rows. — The  Christian  Lawgiver  has  prohibitted  many  things  which  the  hea  ' 
then  philosophers  allowed.  j 

At  summer  eve,  when  heaven's  aerial  bow 

Spans  with  bright  arch  the  glitterring  hills  below, —  I 

Thus  moximed  the  hapless  man ;  a  thimderring  sound 
Rolled  round  the  shudderring  walls  .and  shook  the  ground. 

Rule  vi.  Words  ending  in  double  /,  in  taking  ness,  less,  ly,  or  ; 
ful,  after  them,  generally  omit  one  I;  as,  fulness,  skUless,  fully,  \ 
skilful.  j 

But  words  ending  in  any  double  letter  but  I,  and  taking  ness,  \ 
less,  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double  ;  as,  harmles.^-  , 
nf^s  carelessne.9s  carelessly/,  stiff y,  successful.  j 


BULBS  FOR  SPBLLINO.  89 

Fal^e  brtkography.—X  cbillneM  generally  precedes  a  fever. — He  is  wed 
to  dulIneM. 

The  silent  stranger  stockl  amazed  to  Boe 
Contempt  of  wealth  and  wilUiU  poverty 
BestleaneM  of  mind  imimirs  our  peace. — The  road  to  the  blisful  regions,  is 
M  open  to  the  peasiant  as  to  the  king. — The  arrows  of  calumny  fall  harmleb 
ly  at  the  ieet  of  virtue. 

RuLB  vii.  NesSf  less,  Ir/t  or  /u7,  added  to  words  ending  in 
silent  e,  does  not  cut  it  off;  as,  paleness,  guileless,  closely,  peace- 
ful :  except  in  a  few  words  j  as,  duly,  truly,  awful. 

False  Orthography. — Sedatness  is  becoming. 
AU  these  with  ceasless  praise  his  works  behold. 
Stars  rush :  and  final  ruin  fiercly  drives 
ller  ploughshare  o'er  creation  ! 

— Natnre  made  a  pause, 

4n  aweful  pause !  prophetic  of  her  end ! 

Rule  viii.  When  words  ending  in  silent  e,  assume  the  termi- 
liation,  ment,  the  e  should  not  be  cut  off;  as,  abatement,  chastise- 
mcjit. 

Ment,  like  other  terminations,  changes  y  into  i  when  the  y  ia 
preceded  by  a  consonant ;  as,  accompany y  accompaniment/  merry, 
merrir/unt. 

Falae  Orthosrmphy. — A  judicious  arrangment  of  stndies  facilitates  improv- 
DQent — Eiicournginent  is  greatest  when  we  least  need  it. 
To  saun  allurmcnts  is  not  hard, 
To  mindb  rtsolv'd,  forwam'd,  and  well  prepar'd. 

Rule  ix.  When  words  ending  in  silent  e,  assume  tne  termi- 
nation, able  or  ihle,  the  e  should  generally  be  cut  off;  Ks,blame, 
blamable  ;  cure,  curable  ;  sense,  sensible.  But  if  c  or  ^  soft  comes 
before  e  in  the  original  word,  the  e  is  preserved  in  words  com- 
foundod  with  able  ;  as,  peace,  peaceable  ;  change,  changeable. 

Fahe  Ortho^rnphrj. — Knowledge  is  jlesireahle. — Misconduct  is  uiexcus^ 
able. — Our  nalur.il  defects  are  not  clmrgable  upon  us. — We  are  made  to  be 
i*?rvicable  to  others  as  well  us  to  ourselves. 

Rule  x.  When  ing  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  in  silent 
;,  the  e  is  ahnost  always  omitted;  as,  place,  placing;  lodge^ 
lodging  ;  slave,  slavish  ;  prude ,  prudish. 

Fnhf  Orthotrrnpht/. — Labor  and  expense  are  lost  upon  a  droneish  spirit— 
An  ohiigeing  and  humble  disposition,  is  totally  luconnected  with  a  servile 
And  cringein^  humor. 

Conscience  anticipatemg  time, 

Already  rues  th'  unacted  crime. 

One  self-approveing  hour,  whole  years  out  weighs 

Of  stupiil  starnrs,  and  of  loud  hu7.zas. 

RuLB  zi.     Compound  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  name 

8 


20  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

manner  as  the  simple  words  of  whicli  they  are  compounded , 
as,  glasshouse,  skylight,  thereby,  hereafter.  Many  words  ending 
in  double  I,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule  ;  as,  already,  welfare,  wilful, 
fulfil;  and  also  the  words,  wherever,  Christmas,  lammas,  (^c. 

False  Orthography. — The  Jew's  pasover  was  instituted  in  A.  M.  2513. — 
They  salute  one  another  by  touching  their  forheaiis. — That  which  is  some- 
times expedient,  is  not  allways  so. 

Then,  in  the  scale  of  reas'ning  life  'tis  plain, 
There  must  be,  somwhere,  such  a  rank  as  man. 
Till  hymen  brotight  his  lov-delighted  hour. 
There  dwelt  no  joy  in  Eden's  rosy  bower. 
The  head  reclined,  the  loosened  hair, 
The  limbs  relaxed,  the  mournful  air  :— 
See,  he  looks  up ;  a  wofuU  smile 
Lightens  his  wo- worn  cheek  awhile. 

You  may  now  answer  the  following 
QUESTIONS. 
What  is  language  ? — How  is  language  divided  ?— ^-What  is  natu- 
ral language  ? — What  are  the  elements  of  natural  language  in 
man  ? — Wherein  consists  the  language  of  brutes  ? — What  is  ar- 
tificial language  ?^-What  is  an  idea  ? — What  are  words  ? — What 
is  grammar  ? — What  does  Universal  grammar  explain  ?— ^Where- 
in does  Particular  grammar  differ  from  universal  1 — What  is  the 
standard  of  grammatical  accuracy  ?— What  is  Philosophical  gram- 
mar?— What  is  Practical  grammar  ?-i— What  is  a  principle  of  gram- 
mar ? — A  definition  ?— A  rule  ? — What  is  English  grammar  ? — 
Into  how  many  parts  is  grammar  divided  ? — What  does  Orthog- 
raphy teach  ? 


^      ETYHOIiOCJY  AND  SYNTAX. 

LECTURE  II. 

.    OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of  words, 
their  various  modifications,  and  their  derivation. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  agreement  and  government 
of  words,  and  of  their  proper  arrangement  in  a  sen- 
tence. 

The  word  Etymology  signifies  the  origin  or  pedigree  of  words, 
Syn,  a  prefix  from  the  Greek,  signifies  together.     Syn-tax,  means 
placing  together  ;  or,  as  applied  in  grammar,  sentence  making. 


BTYMOLOOY   AND   SYNTAX.  27 

The  rules  of  syntax,  whicli  direct  to  the  proper  choice  of  words, 
and  thi'ir  judicious  arrangement  in  a  sentence,  and  thereby  enable 
us  to  correct  and  avoid  errors  in  speech,  are  chiefly  based  on 
principles  unfolded  and  explained  by  Ktymolojjy.  Etymologi- 
cal knowledge,  then,  is  a  prerequisite  to  the  study  of  Syntax  ;  but,  in 
parsing,  under  the  head  of  Etymology,  you  are  required  to  apply 
the  rules  of  Syntax.  It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  in  a  prac- 
tical work  of  this  sort,  to  treat  these  two  parts  of  grammar  in 
connexion. 

Conducted  on  scientific  principles,  Etymology  would  com- 
prehend the  exposition  of  the  origin  and  meaning  of  words,  and, 
in  short,  their  whole  history,  including  their  application  to  things 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  thought,  and  the 
caprice  of  those  who  apply  them  ;  but  to  follow  up  the  current  of 
language  to  its  various  sources,  and  analyze  the  springs  from 
which  it  flows,  would  involve  a  process  altogether  too  arduous 
and  extensive  for  an  elementary  work.  It  would  lead  to  the  study 
of  all  those  languages  from  which  ours  is  immediately  derived, 
and  even  compel  us  to  trace  many  words  through  those  lan- 
guages to  others  more  ancient,  and  so  on,  until  the  chain  of  re- 
search would  become,  if  not  endless,  at  least,  too  extensive  to  be 
traced  out  by  one  man.  I  shall,  therefore,  confine  myself  to  the 
following, limited  views  of  this  part  of  grammar. 

1.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification  of  words. 

2.  Etymology  explains  the  accidents  or  properties  peculiar  to 
each  class  or  sort  of  words,  and  their  present  modifications.  By 
modifications,  I  mean  the  changes  produced  on  their  endings,  in 
consequence  jof  their  assuming  different  relations  in  respect  to 
one  another.  These  changes,  such  as  fruit,  fruit;?,  fruit'* ;  he, 
his,  him;  write,  writes^,  write/A,  writes,  wrote,  written,  v^' riving, 
writer;  a,  an;  ample,  amply,  and' the  like,  will  be  explained 
in  their  appropriate  places. 

3.  Etymology  treats  of  the  derivation  of  words;  that  is,  it 
teaches  you  Jiow  one  word  comes  from,  or  grows  out  of  another. 
For  example;  from  the  word  speak,  come  the  words  speakr*/, 
8peakf//i,  speaks,  speak/»j^,  spoke,  spoken,  speaker,  speaker's, 
speakers.  These,  you  perceive,  are  all  one  and  the  same  word, 
and  all,  except  the  last  three,  express  the  same  kind  of  action. 
They  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  termination.     These 

changes  in  tennination  are  produced  on  the  word  in  order  to 
make  it  corresj)ond  with  the  various  persons  who  speak,  the  num- 
ber of  persons,  or  the  time  of  speaking;  as,  /^  speak,  l/iou  spea- 
'st,  the  man  spoaketh,  or  speaks,  the  men  speak,  /  spoke ;  The 
peaker  speaks  another  speaker's  speecA. 


26  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

The  third  part  of  Etymology,  which  is  intimately  connected 
wifh  the  second,  will  be  more  amply  expanded  in  Lecture  XIV. 
and  in  the  Philosophical  notes ;  but  I  shall  not  treat  largely  of 
that  branch  of  derivation  wliich  consists  in  tracing  words  to  for- 
eign languages.  This  is  the  province  of  the  lexicographer,  rather 
than  of  the  philologist.  It  is  not  the  business  of  him  who  writes  a 
practical,  English  grammar,  to  trace  words  to  the  Saxon,  nor 
to  the  Celtic,  the  Greek,  the  Dutch,  the  Mexican,  nor  the  Per. 
sian ;  rior  is  it  his  province  to  explain  their  meaning  in  Latin, 
French,  or  Hebrew,  Italian,  Mohegan,  or  Sanscrit;  but  it  is  hia 
duty  to  explain  their  properties,  their  powers,  their  connexions, 
relations,  dependancies,  and  bearings,  not  at  the  period  in  which 
the  Danes  made  an  irruption  into  the  island  of  Great  Britain,  nor 
in  the  year  in  which  Lamech  paid  his  addresses  to  Adah  and 
Zillah,  but  at  the  particular  'period  in  which  he  writes.  His  words 
are  already  derived,  formed,  established,  and  furnished  to  his 
hand,  and  he  is  bound  to  take  them  and  explain  them  as  he  find? 
them  in  his  day,  without  any  regard  to  their  ancient  construction 
and  application. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

In  arranging  the  parts  of  speech,  I  conceive  it  to  be  the  legiti- 
mate object  of  the  practical  grammarian,  to  consult  practical 
convenience.  The  true  principle  of  classification  seems  to  be, 
not  a  reference  to  essential  differences  in  the  primitive  mean- 
ing of  words,  nor  to  their  original  combinations,  but  to  the  maU' 
ner  in  which  they  are  at  present  employed.  In  the  early  and  rude 
state  of  society,  mankind  are  quite  limited  in  their"*  knowledge, 
and  having  but  few  ideas  to  communicate,  a  small  number  of 
words  answers  their  purpose  in  the  transmission  of  thought.  This 
leads  them  to  express  their  ideas  in  short,  detached  sentences, 
requiring  few  or  none  of  those  connectives,  or  words  of  transition, 
which  are  afterwards  introduced  into  language  by  refinement, 
and  which  contribute  so  largely  to  its  perspicuity  and  elegance. 
The  argumejU  appears  to  be  conclusive,  then,  that  every  lan- 
guage must  necessarily  have  more  parts  of  speech  in  its  refined, 
tnan  m  its  barbarous  state. 

The  part  of  speech  to  which  any  word  belongs,  is  ascertained 
not  by  the  original  signification  of  that  word,  but  by  its  jircsent 
manner  of  meaning,  or,  rather,  the  office  which  it  performs  in  a 
sentence. 

The  various  ways  in  \vhich  a  word  is  applied  to  the  idea  which 
it    represents,    are  called   its  manner  of  meaning.     Thus,  The 


CLAS81F1CATJON. 

painter  dips  his  paint  brush  in  paint,  to  paint  the  carnage.  Here, 
iho  word  paint,  is  first  employed  to  describe  the  brusii  which  the 
painter  uses ;  in  this  situation  it  is,  tliereforc,  an  adjective  ;  sec- 
ondly, to  name  the  mixture  employed  ;  for  which  reason  it  is  a 
noun  ;  and,  lastly,  to  express  the  action  performed  ;  it  therefore, 
becomes  a  verb  ;  and  yet,  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  the  same 
in  all  these  applications.  This  meaning,  however,  is  applied  in 
dilFerent  ways;  and  thus  the  same  word  becomes  dilferent  parts 
of  s|>cech.  Richard  took  vnUer  from  the  water  pot,  to  water  the 
plants. 

y  ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats,  first,  of  the  classification  of  words. 

The  English  Language  is  derived  chiefly  from  the  Saxon, 
Danish,  Celtic,  and  Gothic  ;  but  in  the  progressive  stages  of  its 
refinement,  it  has  been  greatly  enriched  by  accessions  from  the 
Greek,  Latin,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  German  languages. 

The  number  of  words  in  our  language,  after  deducting  proper 
names,  and  words  formed  by  the  inflections  of  our  verbs,  nouns, 
and  adjectives,  may  be  estimated  at  about  forty  thousarul. 

There  are  ten  sorts  of  words,  called  parts  of  speech, 
namely,  the    noun  or  substantive,  verb,  article, 

ADJECTIVE,  PARTICIPLE,  ADVERB,  PREPOSITION,  PRO- 
NOUN, CONJUNCTION,  and  interjection. 

Thus  you  perceive,  that  all  the  words  in  the  English  language 
are  included  in  these  ten  classes :  and  what  you  have  to  do  in 
acfjuiring  a  knowledge  of  English  Grammar,  is  merely  to  become 
acquainted  with  these  ten  parts  of  speech,  and  the  rules  of  Syn- 
tax  that  apply  to  them.  The  Noun  and  Verb  are  the  most  im- 
portant and  leading  parts  of  speech  ;  therefore  they  are  first  pre- 
sented :  all  the  rest  (except  the  interjection)  are  either  appenda- 
ges or  connectives  of  these  two.  As  you  proceed,  you  will  find 
that  it  will  require  more  time,  and  cost  you  more  labor,  to  get  a 
knowledge  of  the  noun  and  verb,  than  it  will  to  become  familiar 
with  all  the  minor  parts  of  speech. 

The  principal  use  of  words  is,  to  name  things,  compare  them 
with  each  other,  and  express  their  actions. 

Nouns,  which  are  the  names  of  entities  or  things,  adjectives^ 
which  denote  the  comparisons  and  relations  of  things  by  describ. 
ing  them,  and  expressing  their  qualities,  and  verbs,  which  express 
the  actions  and  being  of  things,  are  the  only  classes  of  words 

3* 


30  ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

necessarily  recognised  in  a  philosophical  view  of  grammar.  Bui 
in  a  treatise  which  consults,  mainly,  the  practical  ad\  antages  ol 
the  learner,  it  is  believed,  that  no  classification  will  be  found  more 
convenient  or  accurate  than  the  foregoing,  which  divides  words 
into  ten  sorts.  To  attempt  to  prove,  in  this  place,  that  nothing 
would  be  gained  by  adopting  either  a  less  or  a  greater  number 
of  the  parts  of  speech,  would  be  anticipating  the  subject.  1 
shall,  therefore,  give  my  reasons  for  adopting  this  arrangement  in 
preference  to  any  other,  as  the  different  sorts  of  words  are  re- 
specti  /ely  presented  to  you,  for  then  you  will  be  better  prepared 
to  appreciate  my  arguments.  ^ 

OF  NOUNS.  ■" 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing ; 
as,  man,  Charleston,  knowledge. 

Nouns  are  often  improperly  called  suhstantives.  A  substan- 
tive is  the  name  of  a  substance  only ;  but  a  noun  is  the  name 
either  of  a  substance  or  a  quality. 

Noun,  derived  from  the  Latin  word  nomen,  signifies  name. 
The  name  of  any  thing*  that  exists,  whether  animate  or  inani- 

*  The  word  iking,  from  the  Saxon  verb  ihingian,  to  think,  is  almost  un- 
limited in  its  meaning.  It  may  be  applied  to  every  animal  and  creature  in 
the  universe.  By  the  term  creature,  I  mean  that  which  has  been  created ; 
as,  a  dog,  water,  dirt.  This  word  is  also  frequently  applied  to  actions ;  as. 
"  To  get  drunk  is  a  beastly  thing."  In  this  phrase,  it  signifies  neither  animal 
nor  creature ;  but  it  denotes  merely  an  action ;  therefore  this  action  is  the 
thing. 

NOTES  ON  PHILOSOPHICAL  GRAMMAR. 
Perhaps  no  subjeci  has,  in  this  age,  elicited  more  patient  research,  and 
critical  investigation  of  original,  constituent  principles,  formations,  and  com- 
binations, than  the  English  language.  The  legitimate  province  of  philology, 
however,  as  I  humbly  conceive,  has,  in  some  instances,  been  made  to  yield 
to  that  of  philosophy,  so  far  as  to  divert  the  attention  from  the  combinations 
of  our  language  which  refinement  has  intj-oduced,  to  i-adical  elements  and 

•associations  which  no  way  concern  the  progress  of  literature,  or  the  essential 
.use  for  which  language  was  intended.     W^re  this  retrogressive  mode  of  in- 

Ivestigating  and  applying  principles,  to  o})tain,  among  philologists,  the  ascend- 
ency over  that  which  accommodates  the  use  of  language  to  progressnve  re- 
finement, it  is  easy  to  conceive  the  state  of  barbarism  to  which  society  would, 
in  a  short  time,  be  reduced.  Moreover,  if  what  some  call  the  ])hilosophy  of 
language,  were  to  supersede,  altogether,  the  province  of  philology  as  it  ap 
plies  to  the  preseut,  progressive  and  refined  state  of  English  literature,  the 
great  object  contemplated  by  the  learned,  in  all  ages,  namely,  the  approxi- 
mation of  language,  in  common  with  every  thing  else,  to  that  point  of  perfec- 
tion at  which  it  is  the  object  of  correct  ]>hilology  to  an'ive,  would  be  fnistrated. 
•The  dubious  and  wildering  track  struck  out  by  those  innovators  and  vis- 
ionaries who  absurdly  endeavor  to  teacli  modern  English,  by  rejecting  the 


NOimS.— COMMON  AND  PROPEB.  5l 

mate,  or  which  we  can  sco,  hear,  feci,  taste,  gmell,  or  think  of,  is 
a  noun.  Animal,  bird,  creature,  paper ,  pen,  apple,  field,  howse, 
modesty,  virtue,  danger,  are  all  nouns.  In  order  that  you  may 
easily  distinguish  this  part  of  speech  from  others,  I  will  give  you 
a  sign,  whicSi  will  be  useful  to  you  when  you  cannot  tell  it  by 
the  sense.  Anv  word  that  will  make  sense  with  the  before  it,  is 
a  noun.  Try  the  following  words  by  this  sign,  and  see  if  tliey 
are  nouns :  tree,  mountain,  soul,  mind,  conscience,  understand- 
ing. The  tree,  the  mountrfin,  the  soul,  and  so  on.  You  perceive, 
that  they  will  make  sense  with  the  prefixed  ;  therefore  you  know 
tlioy  are  nouns.  Tliere  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule,  for 
some  nouns  will  not  make  sense  with  the  prefixed.  These  you 
will  be  able  to  distinguish,  if  you  exercise  your  mind,  by  their 
making  sense  of  Uiemselves  ;  as,  goodness,  sobriety,  hope,  immortality. 

Nouns  are  used  to  denote  the  nonentity  or  absence  of  a  thing, 
as  well  as  its  reality ;  as,  nothing,  naught,  vacancy,  non-existence, 
invisibility. 

Nouns  are  sometimes  used  as  verbs,  and  verbs,  as  nouns,  ac- 
cording to  their  manner  of  meaning ;  and  nouns  are  sometimes 
used  as  adjectives,  and  adjectives,  as  nouns.  This  matter  will 
be  explained  in  the  concluding  part  of  this  lecture,  where  you 
will  be  better  prepared  to  comprehend  it. 

authority  and  sanction  of  custom,  and  by  conducting  the  learner  back  to  the 
oriu'iii.'il  ooinbiiiafions,  and  the  detached,  disjointed,  and  barbarous  construc- 
ti'uis  <»f  our  proLTonitor*,  both  pnidence  and  reason,  aa  well  as  a  due  regard 
fur  cornvt  i)hiltiloffy,  impel  me  to  slum.  Those  modcHt  writers  who,  by 
lninL:iii ,'  to  tneir  aicl  a  little  sophistry,  much  duplicity,  and  a  wliolesalo  trattic 
iu  tlie  swelling'  phrases,  "  philosophy,  reason,  and  common  sense,"  attempt 
to  overthrow  the  wiwlom  ot  fonner  ajjes,  and  show  that  the  result  of  all  the 
luhyrs  of  those  distiiig^uishecl  philolo^sLs  who  had  previously  occupied  tl»e 
field  of  grammatical  science,  is  notlnng  but  error  and  folly,  will  doubtless 
meet  the  ne^'lect  and  contempt  justly  merited  by  such  consummiito  vanity 

r  '       '  '     '  ;    -  :'.>dantr)'.     Fortimatoly  ior  those  who  employ  '  •  -  ' - 'o 

•  mental  conference,  custom  will  not  yield  t"  i- 

'  •  I H>  >-isionary.     If  it  would,  improvement  iiiKi.  i- 

ture  w<»uld  soou  be  at  au  end,  and  we  should  be  tamely  cuuducied  back  to 
Jio  Vandalic  aire. 


r  ■       1        .  -   .'.  ■  ^         :!ie 

iullucy  ot  «u  va^ue  a  criluriou. 

All  r*»H»onin?  and  iiiventigation  which  dep«*nd  on  the  philosophy  of  Ian* 
gii:«i''-  ■"  '  n'*tilt,  must  '  ''■■■!        Tire,  ac- 

cnr.l  moile  of  tr  rige  to 

it.H  ot ;  ,  irposo  of  <li  '  _  „;......    .  associa- 

tiuns  and  tif^|ieudjuiceti,  such  as  the  ajjr*-  iiiment,  and  mutual  rela- 

tions of  wonls,  but  in  onierto  analyze  .  i-  with  a  view  to  develop 

(ha  first  principles  of  the  langusigo,  and  :irnvi>  at  the  primitive  meaning  ui 


^J6  ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  common  and  proper. 
A  Common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort  or  species  of 
things;  as,  man,  tree,  river, 

A  Proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual ;  as, 
Charles,  Ithaca,  Ganges, 

,    A  noun  signifying  many,  is  called  a  collective  noun, 
r  noun  of  multitude ;  as,  the  people,  the  artny. 

The  distinction  between  a  common  and  a  proper  noun,  is  very 
obvious.  For  example  ;  boy  is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  a 
name  applied  to  all  boys ;  but  Charles  is  a  proper  noun,  because 
it  is  the  name  of  an  individual  boy.  Although  many  boys  may 
have  the  same  name,  yet  you  know  it  is  not  a  common  noun,  for 
the  name  Charles  is  not  given  to  all  boys.  Mississippi  is  a  prop- 
er noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  an  individual  river ;  but  river 
is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  species  of  things, 
and  the  name  river  is  common  to  all  rivers. 

Nouns  which  denote  the  genus,  species,  or  variety  of  beings 
or  things,  are  always  common ;  as,  tree,  the  genus  ;  oak,  ash, 
chestnut,  poplar,  different  species ;  and  red  oak,  white  oak,  black 
oaJc,  varieties.  The  word  earth,  when  it  signifies  a  kind  or  quan- 
tity of  dirt,  is  a  common  noun  ,•  but  when  it  denotes  the  planet 
we  inhabit,  it  is  a  proper  noun.     The  words  person,,  place,  river, 

words.  Now,  it  is  presumed,  that  no  one  who  has  paid  critical  attention  to 
the  subject,  will  contend,  that  the  original  import  of  single  words,  has  any 
relation  to  the  syntactical  dependances  and  cormexions  of  words  in  gene- 
ral ; — to  gain  a  knowledge  of  which,  is  the  leading  object  of  the  student  iu 
grammar.  And,  furthermore,  I  challenge  those  who  have  indulged  in  such 
useless  vagaries,  to  show  by  what  process,  with  their  own  systems,  they  can 
communicate  a  practical  knowledge  of  grammar.  I  venture  to  predict,  that, 
if  they  make  the  attempt,  they  will  find  their  systems  more  splendid  m  the- 
ory, than  useful  in  practice. 

Again,  it  cannot  rationally  be  contended,  that  the  radical  meaning  has  any 
efficiency  in  controlling  the  signification  which,  by  the  power  of  association, 
custom  has  assigned  to  many  words  ; — a  signification  essejitially  different  frori 
the  original  import.  Were  this  the  case,  and  were  the  language  now  to  be 
taught  and  understood  in  compliance  with  the  original  import  of  words,  it 
would  have  to  undergo  a  thorough  change  ;  to  be  analyzed,  divided,  and  sub- 
divided, almost  ad  infinitum.  Indeed,  there  is  the  same  propriety  in  assert- 
ing, that  the  Gothic,  Danish,  and  Anglo-Saxon  elements  in  our  language. 
0  ight  to  be  pronomiced  sepai-ately,  to  enable  us  to  understand  our  vernacular 
tongue,  that  there  is  in  contending,  that  their  primitive  meaning  has  an  as^ 
cendency  over  the  influence  of  the  principle  of  association  in  changing,  and 
the  power  of  custom  in  detei'minihg,  the  import  of  words.  Many  of  our 
wQids  are  derived  from  the  Greek,  Roman,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
German  languages;  and  the  only  use  we  c;  'nake  of  their  originals,  is  U 
render  them  subservient  to  the  force  of  c- '    An  in  cases  in  whieU  general 


NOUlfS. COMMON    AND   PROPSB.  33 

mountain,  lake,  &c.  are  common  rtouns,  because  they  are  the 
nan)cs  of  whole  gpecies,  or  classes  of  things  containing  many 
sorLs ;  but  the  names  of  persons,  places,  rivers,  mountains,  lakes, 
d:c.  are  proper  nouns,  because  they  denote  individuals;  as,  Au- 
gustus, Baltimore,  Alps,  Huron. 

Physician,  lawyer,  mcrcliant,  and  shoemaker,  are  common  nouns, 

because  these  names  are  common  to  classes  of  men.     God  and 

Lord,  when  applied  to  Jehovah  or  Jesus  Christ,  are  proper ;  but 

'lit  n  employed  to  denote  heathen  or  false  gods,  or  temporal  lords^ 

they  are  common. 

The  Notes  and  remarks  throughout  the  work,  though  of  minor 
importance,  demand  your  attentive  and  careful  perusal. 

NOTES. 
«    1.  When  proper  nouns  liave  an  article  annexed  to  them,  they  are  used  nftot 
the  iimnner  of  common  uouus;  as,  "  Bolivar  is  styled  the  Washiugton  of  South. 
Anierira," 

2.  Common  nouns  are  sometimes  used  to  ^gnify  indivi duals,  when  articles 
or  pronouns  are  prefixed  to  them,  as,  *'  The  boy  is  studious;  That  g^irl  is 
discreet."     In  sucn  instances,  they  are  nearly  equivalent  to  proper  noiin^. 

3.  Common  nouns  are  sometimes  sululivided  into  the  foUowiug  classes : 
Sonn*  of  MuttUude  ;  as,  The  i»e»)ple,  the  parliament :  Verbal  or  participial 
nouns:  as.  The  beginning,  reatling,  writing;  and  Abstract  nouns,  or  tJie 
names  of  qualities  abstracted  from  their  8ubst;mces;  as,  knowledge,  virtue, 
gcMHlness.  Lest  the  student  be  led  to  blend  tlie  idea  of  abstract  tiouns  with 
that  of  adjectives,  both  of  which  denote  qualities,  a  ferther  illustration  ap- 
pears to  be  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  distinction  between  these  two 
partii  of  sjieech.  An  abstract  noun  denotes  a  quality  considered  apart  (that 
IS,  abstracted) /rom  the  substance  or  beuig  to  which  it  belongs;  but  an  ad- 
jective denotes  a  qu&Wty  joined  (adjected)  to  the  substance  or  being  to  which 
It  l)ehingB      Thus,  whiteness  and  tchtte  both  denote  the  same  quality  ;  but  we 

usjiire  has  not  varied  from  the  primitive  signification.  Moreover,  let  the  nd- 
vix-ales  of  a  mere  philosophical  investigation  of  the  langiiaL'e,  extend  tlieir 
systenx  as  far  as  a  radical  auiUysis  will  warrant  them,  and,  with  Home  Tooke, 
not  only  coaaider  adverbs,  preixisitions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections,  as 
ablireviations  of  noims  and  verbs,  but,  on  ibeir  own  responsibility,  apply 
til.  Ill,  in  teaching  the  language,  in  compliance  icith  their  radical  import,  and 
wlcit  would  such  a  course  avail  them  against  the  p)wer  of  custom,  anil  the 
influence  of  association  and  refinement  7  Let  them  show  me  on*  gramma- 
rian, pnxluced  by  such  a  course  of  mstniction,  and  they  will  exhibit  a  **  philo- 
sophical" miraclu  They  might  as  well  unihcrtake  to  teach  architecture,  by 
having  recounwj  to  its  origin,  as  represented  by  booths  and  tents.  In  add! 
tion  to  this,  when  wo  consider  the  great  number  of  obsolete  words,  from 
whi«h  many  now  in  use  are  derived,  the  original  meaning  of  which  cannot 
W  Jts«ertained.  and,  also,  the  multitude  w1h»m>  f^iirnlfirnfion  has  been  changed 
iy  tlio  principle  of  ass<M:iation,  it  is  prep<)(»ter> >  "  '   '.,  that  a  mere  philo- 

64*pliical  niixle  t)f  inverttigatiii;,'  uiid  tciuhing  tin  -  the  one  by  which 

if,  V   •■)■!,  :ii><v  con  bo  enforced,  il^  correctnc.-.-  ..lcI,  '\\»  use  conipre- 

1  \  \l*  improvement  extended.     Before  wliut  oommoiilv  passes  for 

u  .ual  manner  of  developing  the  language  can  successfully  be  m:ide 

the  uHxljum  through  which  it  ran  bo  comprehended  in  all  its  present  com- 
binations, rolatious,  and  dependances  it  must  undergo  a  thorough  retrogre* 


84  ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYi.i'AX. 

speak  6f  whiteness  as  a  distinct  object  of  thought,  while  we  use  the  word  7ohite 
always  in  reference  to  the  uoun  to  whicli  it  belongs ;  as,  white  paper,-  white 
nouse. 

4.  Some  authors  have  proceeded  to  still  more  minute  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions of  nouns ;  such,  for  example,  as  the  following,  which  appear  to  be 
more  complex  than  useful :  Natural  nouns,  or  names  of  things  formed  by- 
nature;  as,  man,  beast,  water,  air:  2.  Artijicial  noitns,  or  names  of  things 
formed  by  art ;  as,  book,  vessel,  house  :  3.  Personal  no7tns,  or  those  which 
etand  for  human  beings ;  as,  man,  woman,  Edwin :  4.  Neuter  nouns,  or 
those  which  denote  things  inanimate;  as,  book,  field,  mountain,  Cincinnati. 
The  following,  however,  is  quite  a  rational  divi- Jon :  Material  nouns  are  the 
names  of  things  f  )rmed  of  matter ;  as,  stone,  book :  Immaterial  nouns  are 
the  names  of  things  having  no  substance ;  as,  hope,  immortality. 

To  nouns  belong  gender,  person,  number,  and  case. 
GENDER. 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex.  Nouns  have  three 
genders,  the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter. 

The  masculine  gender  denotes  males;  as,  a  warz,  a  boy. 

The  fe?ninine  gender  denotes  females;  as,  a  wo- 
man, a  girL 

The  neuter  gender  denotes  things  without  sex;  as, 
a  hat,  a  stick. 

Neuter  mea.ns  neither:  therefore  neuter  gender  signifies  nei- 
/her  gender  ;    that  is,  neither  masculine  nor  feminine.     Henc^ 

sive  change,  in  all  those  combinations,  relations,  and  dependances,  even  to 
the  last  letter  of  the  alphabet.  And  before  we  can  consent  to  this  radical 
modification  and  retrograde  ratio  of  the  English  language,  we  must  agree  to 
revive  the  customs,  the  habits,  and  the  precise  language  of  our  progenitors, 
the  Goths  and  Vandals.  Were  all  the  advocates  for  the  introduction  of  such 
philosophical  grammars  into  common  schools,  at  once  to  enter  on  their  pil- 
gnmage,  and  recede  into  the  native  obscuiity  and  barbarity  of  the  ancient 
Britons,  Picts,  and  Vandals,  it  is  believed,  that  the  cause  of  learning  and  re- 
finement would  not  suifer  greatly  by  their  loss,  and  that  the  good  sense  of  the 
present  age,  would  not  allow  many  of  our  best  teachers  to  be  of  the  party. 
The  last  consideration  which  I  shall  give  a  philosophical  maimer  of  inves- 
tigating and  enforcing  the  English  language,  is,  that  by  this  mode  of  analy- 
zing and  reducing  it  to  practice,  it  cannot,  in  this  age,  be  comprehended  as  the 
medium  of  thought.  Were  this  method  to  prevail,  our  present  literal  lan- 
guage would  become  a  dead  letter.  Of  what  avail  is  language,  if  it  can  not 
be  understood  ?  And  how  can  it  be  accommodated  to  the  understanding, 
unless  it  receive  the  sanction  of  common  consent  1  Even  if  we  admit  tliat 
such  a  manner  of  unfolding  the  principles  of  our  language,  is  more  rational 
and  correct  than  the  ordinary,  practical  method,  I  think  it  is  clear  that  such 
a  mode  of  investigation  and  development,  does  not  meet  the  necesaities  and 
convenience  of  ordinary  learners  in  school.  To  be  consistent,  that  system 
which  instnicts  by  tracing  a  few  of  our  words  to  their  origin,  must  unfold 
the  whole  in  the  same  manner.  But  the  student  in  common  schools  and 
academies,  cannot  aflford  time  to  stem  the  tide  of  language  up  to  its  sourca. 


UoOSS. — GENDER.  _  35 

neuter  gender  means  no  gender.     Strictly  speaking,  tlicn,  as  tlicre 
an:'  but  two  scxe«,  nouns  have  but  two  genders ;  but  for  the  sake 
of  practical  convenience,  we  apply  to  them  three  genders,  by  < 
calling  that  a  gender  which  is  no  gender.     The  English  and  thes 
pure  Persian,  ap|>ear  to  be  the  only  languages  which  observe,  in 
the  distinction  of  sex,  th(?  natural  division  of  nouns. — The  gen- 
ders  of  nouns  are  so  easily  known,  that  a  farther  explanation  of 
them  is  unnecessary,  except  what  is  given  in  the  following 
NOTES. 

1 .  The  same  noun  is  sometimes  masculine  and  feminine,  and  sometimes 
masculine  or  feminine.  The  noun  parents  is  of  the  masculine  and  feminine 
gLMider.  The  nouns  paretU,  asxociaU,  neighbor,  servant,  friend,  child,  bird, 
Jish,  Src.  if  doubtful,  are  of  the  nuusciiline  or  femhiine  gender. 

2.  Some  mnuis  natundlv  neuter,  are,  when  used  figuratively,  or  personified, 
converte*!  into  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender.  Those  nouns  are  gcuenilly 
rendennl  masculine,  which  are  conspicuous  for  tlie  attributes  of  impailing 
or  coininunicating,  and  which  are  by  nature  strong  and  efficacious;  as,  the 
sun,  time,  death,  sleep,  winter,  J!^-c.  Those,  again,  are  geiiorally  femiuiuo, 
which  are  conspicuous  for  the  attributes  of  containing  or  bringing  forth,  or 
which  are  very  beautiful,  mild,  or  amiable  ;  as,  the  earth,  moon,  church,  boat, 
vf»»rl,  city,  country,  nature,  ship,  soul,  fortune,  virtue,  hope,  spring,  peace,  SfC. 
This  principle  for  designating  the  sex  of  a  personified  object,  which  is  quite 
rational,  is  generally  adhered  to  in  the  English  language ;  but^  in  some  in- 
stances, tlie  poet  applies  the  sex  according  to  his  fancy. 

The  masculine  and  feminine  genders  are  distinguished  in  three  ways : 
1.  By  difcrenl  icords ;  as, 
Ifaseuline.  Feminine.  Masculine.  Feminine 

Bachelor  maid  Boy  girl 

Hoar  BOW  Brother  sister 

and  there  dive  to  the  bottom  of  the  fountain  for  knowledge.  Such  labor 
ought  not  to  be  required  of  liim.  His  object  is  to  become,  not  a  philosophi- 
cal antiquarian,  but  a  practical  gramnlarian.  If  I  comprehend  the  design 
(if  they  have  any)  of  our  modem  philosophical  writers  on  this  stibject,  it  is 
t  .'  :  iinmarians  by  inculcating  a  few  genenil  principles,  arising  out  of 
■  f  the  language,  and  llie  nature  of  things,  which  the  learner,  by 
!;  >(•  of  his  reasoning  powers,  must  reduce  to  practice.      His  own 

jiidgineul,  independent  of  grammar  rules,  is  to  be  his  guide  in  speaking  and 
writing  correctly.  Hence,  many  of  them  exclinle  from  their  systems,  all 
exercises  in  whjit  is  calle<l  /'  "  '  r.  But  these  piofoiuul  j>liih ►logical 
dictators  ap|M?ar  to  have  o\  ■  i*  important  consideration,  that  the 

great  mass  of  mankind,  and  i   ,    ,    it"  boys  and  girls  yj  common  schools, 

can  never  become  philoxophers ;  antl,  consequently,  can  never  comprehend 
BTtfl  rfNliicp  to  pmrticf*  tlieir  niPtnpliYsicnl  and  obscure  systems  of  grammar. 
I        ■  lugs.     But  there  should  be  a 

I  to  iimti-uot  children  as  if  they 

\'.    .     - ..  .  .  .  .-..  lans. 

To  deni'  ;  enlorre  iho  necessity,  of  exercising  the 

lenmer  in  '  .  I  nee«l  no  other  ririrunient  th;m  tlie  mter- 

e*ting  and  i  it  .Mr.  .Mu: :  's  department,  have 

etlt'cted  a  I  a  iti  the   !  in  point  of  verba. 

accunu\v.     \. .....   Uuow,  that  li..    .      .    .....;...  of  this  day,  are  not 

guilty  of  OK^  gmmma*V4i(  iitHccnriM^,  where  those  authors  who  wrote  before 


86 


ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 


Back 

doe 

Lord 

lady 

BaU 

cow 

Man 

woman 

Cock 

hen 

Master 

mistress 

Dog 

bitch 

Milter 

spawnei 

Drake 

duck 

Nephew 

niece 

Earl 

countess 

Ram 

ewe 

Father 

mother 

Singer  •" 

songstress  or 

Friar 

nun 

singer 

Gander 

goose 

Sloven 

slut 

Hart 

roe 

Son 

daughter 

Hoi'se 

mare 

Stag 

Husband 

wife 

Uncle 

aunt 

King 

queen 

Wizard 

witch 

Lad 

lass 

Sir 

madam 

2.  By  a  difference  in  termination ; 

as, 

Abbot 

abbess 

Elector 

electress 

Actor 

actress 

Embassador 

embassadres* 

Administrator 

administi-atrix 

Emperor 

emperess 

Adulterer 

adulteress 

Enchanter 

enchantress 

Ambassador 

ambassadress 

Executor 

executrix 

Arbiter 

arbiti'ess 

Fornicator 

fornicatress 

Auditor 

auditress 

God 

goddess 

Author 

authoress 

Governor 

govemesi 

Baron 

baroness 

Heir 

heiress 

Benefactor 

benefactress 

Hero 

heroine 

Bridegroom 

bride 

Host 

hostess 

Canon 

canoness 

Hunter 

huntress 

Caterer 

cateress 

Inheritor 

inheritress  oj 

Chante. 

chan  tress 

inheritrix 

Conductor 

conductress 

Instructor 

instructress 

Count 

countess 

Jew 

Jewess 

Czar 

czarina 

Lion 

lioness 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Marquis 

marchioness 

Detracter 

deti-actress 

Mayor 

mayoress 

Director 

directress 

Pati-on 

patroness 

Duke 

dutchess 

Peer 

peeress 

Mr.  Murray  flourished,  are  guilty  o^  jive  ?  And  what  has  produced  this  ini 
portant  change  for  the  better  1  Ask  the  hundreds  of  thousands  who  have 
studied  "  Mr.  Murray's  exercises  in  False  Syntax."  If,  then,  this  view  of 
the  subject  is  correct,  it  follows,  that  the  greater  portion  of  our  philosophical 
gi-arnmars,  are  far  more  worthy  the  attention  of  literary  connoisseurs,  than 
of  the  great  mass  of  learners. 

Knowing  that  a  strong  predilection  for  philosophical  grammars,  exists  in 
the  minds  of  some  teachers  of  this  science,  T  have  thought  proper,  for  tho 
gratification  of  such,  to  interspersie  through  the  pages  of  this  work,  under  the 
head  of  "  Philosophical  Notes,"  an  entire  system  of  grammatical  princi- 
ples as  deduced  from  what  appears  to  me  to  be  the  most  rational  and  consist- 
ent philosophical  investigations.  They  who  prefer  this  theory  to  that  exhib- 
ited in  the  body  of  the  work,  are,  of  course,  at  liberty  to  adopt  it. 

In  general,  a  philosophical  theory  of  grammar  will  be  found  to  accord  tcith 
the  practical  theory  embraced  in  the  body  of  this  icork.  Wherever  such 
aereemnd  exists,  the  system,  contained  in  these  Notks  iHll  be  deficient,  and 
this  deficiency  m<iy  be  supplied  by  adopting  the  principles  coiUained  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  work. 


NOUNS. — PERSON. 


37 


Poet 

pMtM 

Priett 

pnetteM 

Princ* 

princ6M 

I'rior 

prioroM 

I'rophot 

prupheteM 

l'i.)j>rii»tor 

proprietrea* 

T:  .'■.lor 

protectTMS 

rd 

shepherdeM 

'••r 

•ongitroM 

>  >ir.«rer 

■orceroM 

•suiter 

■aitroM 

Sultan 

Tiger 

Testator 

Traitor 

Tutor 

Tyrant 

Victor 

Viscount 

Votary 

Widower 


•ultaneM  or 
sultana 
tigress 
testatrix 
traitress 
tutoress 
tyranues* 
victress 
viscountess 
votaress 
widow 


3.  By  prefixing  another  leord ;  as.                                     ) 

A  cock-sparrow  A  hen-sparrow 

A  mau-servaat  A  maid-servant 

A  he-goat  A  she-soat 

A  he-bear  A  she-bear 

A  male-child  A  female-child 

Male^iescendants  Female-descendants 

PERSON. 

Person  is  a  property  of  the  noun  and  pronoun 
vhich  varies  the  verb. 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker,  u  J\»^--  ' 

The  second  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  to  ;   as,  "  Listen,  0  earth  !" 

The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of;  as,  "  The  earth  thirsts." 

Nouns  have  but  two  persons,  the  second  and  third.  When  a 
man  speaks,  the  pronoun  I  or  we  is  always  used  ;  therefore  nouns 
can  never  be  in  the  first  person.     In  examples  like  the  following, 

OF  THE  PUlLOSOrUICAL  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WO^a 
According  to  tlie  method  in  which  philoHophical  investigations  of  language 
have  generally  been  conducted,  all  our  words  should"  be  reduced  to  two 
cla-Hses :  for  it  can  bo  easily  shown,  tliat  from  the  noun  and  verb,  all  the  other 
parts  of  speech  huve  sprung.  Nay,  more.  They  may  even  be  retluced  to 
on«'.  V«'rl)s  do  not,  in  reality,  ezprest  actions;  but  they  are  intrinsically  the 
m»  rt-  n'nn>:t  of  actions.  The  idea  of  action  or  being  communicate'd  by  them, 
a-H  \vv\\  :i.-.  th»»  meaning^  of  wonls  hi  general,  is  merely  inferential.  The  princi- 
ple (if  reasoning  assumed  by  the  cdehmted  Home  Tooke,  if  carried  t<»  \Xa  full 
extent,  would  result,  it  is  believed,  in  proving  that  we  have  but  one  |)urt  of 
spe.'i-h.  , 

Aluoutu  or  adjective$  were  originally  noims.  Sweet,  red,  while,  are  the 
namtt  of  t|uulitie8.  as  well  as  twectnest,  rednesM,  mhiteness.  The  former  differ 
from  the  latter  <Kjly  in  their  manner  of  significatiim.  To  denote  that  the 
ti:iine  of  Homo  (piality  or  substance  is  to  be  umhI  in  connexion  with  stune 
«>t ii.  I  name,  or.  that  this  quality  is  to  be  nUrihuled  to  some  other  name,  we 
'■II  times  atlix  to  it  the  termination  en,  cd,  or  y  ;  which  signifies  "ire,  idd, 
or  join.  When  we  emnloy  the  words  wooden,  woollen,  wcalthv,  gra.'^s^/,  the 
termiuatioas  en  and  jr,  uy  their  own  intiiusic  meaning,  give  notice  that  wo 

4 


38  F,TVMOi.(KTY   AiND  SY.Vrj^X. 

some  philologists  suppose  the  noun  to  be  in  the^r^i  person : — "  This 
may  certify,  that  I,  Jonas  Taylor ,  do  hereby  give  and  grant," 
&c.  But  it  is  evident,  that  the  speaker  or  writer,  in  introducing 
his  own  name,  speaks  of  himoelf ;  consequently  the  noun  is  of 
the  third  person. 

If  you  wish  to  understand  the  persons  of  nouns,  a  little  sober 
thought  is  requisite ;  and,  by  exercising  it,  all  difficulties  will  be 
removed.  If  I  say,  my  soil,  have  you  seen  the  young  man  ?  you 
perceive  that  the  noun  son  is  of  the  second  person,  because  1  ad- 
dress myself  to  him  ;  that  is,  he  is  spoken  to  ;  but  the  noun  man 
is  of  the  third  person,  because  he  is  spoken  of.  Again,  if  I  say. 
young  man,  have  you  seen  my  son  ?  man  is  of  the  second  person, 
and  son  is  of  the  third. 

"  Hast  thou  left  thy  blue  course  in  the  heavens,  goldefi-haired 
sun  of  the  sky  ?  " 

"  Father,  may  the  Great  Spirit  so  brighten  the  chain  of  friend- 
ship between  us,  that  a  child  may  find  it,  when  the  sun  is  asleep 
in  his  wig-wam  behind  the  western  waters.  " 

"  Lo,  earth  receives  him  from  the  bending  skies ! 
Sink  down,  ye  mountains,  and,  ye  valleys,  rise ! " 
"  Eternal  Hope,  thy  glittering  wings  explore 
Earth's  loneliest  bounds,  and  ocean's  wildest  shore." 

In  these  examples,  the  nouns,  sun,  father,  mountains,  valleys, 
and  hope,  ^re  of  the  second  person,  and,  as  you  will  hereaft-?  • 
/earn,  in  the  nominative  case  independent.  Course,  heavens,  sky 
Spiri-,  chain,  friendship,  child,  sun,  wig-wam,  waters,  earth,  skies, 
wings,  earth,  bounds,  ocean,  and  shore,  are  all  of  the  third  person. 

intend  to  give,  add,  or  join,  the  names  of  some  other  substances  in  which  are 
found  the  properties  or  qualities  of  wood,  wool,  wealth,  or  grass. 

Pronnnns  are  a  class  of  nouns,  used  instead  of  others  to  prevent  their  dis- 
agi'eeable  repetition.  Particijiles  are  certain  forms  of  the  verb.  Articles, 
interjections,  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions,  are  contractions  of  ab- 
breviations of  nouns  and  verbs.  An  (a,  ane,  or  one)  comes  from  anannd,  to 
add,  to  heap.  The  and  that,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  thean,  to  get,  as- 
sume. Lo  is  the  imperative  of  look ;  fy,  ofjian,  to  hate  ;  and  welcome  means, 
it  i.s  well  that  you  are  come.  In  comes  fi-om  the  Gothic  noun  irtna,  the  inte- 
rior of  the  body ;  and  ahoiU,  from  boda,  the  first  outward  boundary.  Through 
liv  thorough  is  the  Teutonic  noun  thvnth,  meaning  passage,  gate,  door.  From 
is  the  Anglo-Saxon  noun  frnm,  beginning,  source,  author.  He  came  from 
(teginning)  Batavia.  //"  (formerly  written  gif,  give,  gin)  is  the  imperative 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  gifan,  to  give.  I  will  remain  if  (give  or  grant  that 
fact)  he  will  (remain.)  Bid  comes  from  the  Saxon  verb  beon-utan,  to  be 
out.     I  informed  no  one  but  (be-out,  leave-out)  my  brother. 

This  brief  view  of  the  subject,  is  sufficient  to  elucidate  the  manner  \it 
which,  according  to  Hor'ne  Tooke's  prhiciples,  the  ten  parts  of  speech  are 
reduced  to  one.  But  I  am,  by  no  means,  disposed  to  concede,  that  this  is  the 
true  principle  of  classification ;  nor  tliat  it  is  any  more  philosophical  or  ra 


I 


NOUNS. NUMBER.  39 

NUMBER. 

Number  is  the  distinction  of  objects,  as  one  or 
more.  Nouns  are  of  two  numbers,  the  singular  and 
the  pkiral. 

Tlie  singular  number  implies  but  one ;  as,  a  book. 

The  plural  number  implies  more  than  one;  as,  books 

NOTES. 

1.  Some  nonns  are  used  only  in  the  singular  form ;  as,  hemp,  flax,  barley, 
wheat,  pitch,  gold,  cloth,  pride,  honesty,  meekness,  compassiun,  &c. ;  others 
only  in  the  plural  form ;  as,  bellows,  scissors,  ashes,  riches,  suuflers,.  tongs, 
thanks,  wages,  embers,  idea,  pains,  vespers,  &c. 

2.  Some  words  are  the  same  in  both  numbers ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  swine ;  and, 
also,  hiatus,  apparatus,  series,  species. 

3.  The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  cenerally  formed  by  adding  s  to  the  sin- 
gular ;  as,  dove,  doves ;  face,  faces ;  but  sometimeti  we  add  e»  in  the  plural : 
as,  box,  boxes ;  church,  churches  ;  lash,  hisben  ;  cargo,  cargoes. 

4.  Nouns  enduig  in/or/e,  are  rendered  plural  by  a  change  of  that  termi- 
nation into  ves ;  as,  half,  halves ;  wife,  wives ;  except  grief,  relief,  reprtK)f, 
ami  several  others,  which  form  their  plurals  by  the  addition  of  s.  Those 
ending  in^,  have  the  regular  plural ;  as,  ruft',  ruffs ;  except  staff,  staves. 

5.  Nouns  euduig  in  y  m  the  singular,  with  no  other  vowel  in  the  same  s>l- 
Jable,  change  it  hito  ies  in  the  plural ;  as,  beauty,  beauties  ;  fly,  flies.  But 
the  y  i>  —  ^  ■  V  -  '  -  there  is  another  vowel  in  tlie  syllable;  an,  \&y, 
keys ;  <  .  uttornt^ys ;  valley,  valleys ;  chimney,  chinin-N  h. 

6.  M  ,  ^  -s,  poliUcs,  optics,  ethics, pneumatict,  hydraulics. 
^.  are  construed  either  au  singular  or  plural  nouns.  ^ 

7.  The  word  neies  is  always  smgnlar.  The  nouns  meant,  alm»,  and  amend*, 
iiough  pi u ml  in  form,  may  be  either  singular  or  plural  in  signification.     An- 

lional  than  one  which  allows  a  more  practical  division  and  arrangement  of 
weinls.  What  has  been  generally  received  as  "philosophical  gnmimar," 
appears  to  possess  no  stronger  claims  to  that  imiHismg  apjwllation  than  our 
ct>uunon,  practical  grammars,  ^uery.  Is  not  Mr.  Murray's  fjctiivo  gram 
mar  more  worthy  the  dignified  title  of  a  "Philosophical  Grammar'  vhan 
Home  Tooke's  "  Diversions  of  Pinley,"  or  William  S.  Cardell's  treatises  on 
laimuai:*'  7  What  constiAtes  n. philntophical  treatise,  on  this,  or  on^ny  other 
suUirct  ?  Wherein  is  there  a  display  of  philosophy  in  a  speculativ^t.  etymo- 
l  '  '"trinance,  which  attempts  to  develop  and  explain  the  elements 
ii  ••  meaning  of  woitls  by  tracing  them  to  their  origin,  svperior  to 

ti  ;'!iy  employed  in  the  development  and  illustration  of  the  princi- 

pl«*.-»  l»y  which  we  are  governed  in  applying  those  wonls  to  their  legitimate 
ptirposp.  namely,  tnat  of  fonning  a  correct  and  convenient  me<Hum  by  means 
<■'      '     '  ■     fi'  our  thouf{hts  ?     Does  phil'        '  "  '   ' 

1  i-i  of  antiquity,  in  order  to  r 

<  i  of  single  words  7  or  havQ  f-,'  _        :    , 

in  n-Hlily,  any  thing  to  do  with  f^ramntar  f 

Admittinir  thnt  nil  the  wortls  of  our  language  include,  in  their  origintrl 
^'     '"  f  of  nouns  or  names,  and  yet,  it  does  not  follow,  that 

!'  -r  powers,  and,  in  their  combinations  and  connexi<»nfl 

!■  ,      wil  for  no  other  purnow,  than  hardy  to  nam'e^hjeci*. 

'i  '  •  i*e  i.*,  that  words  are  variously  combmed  and  applied,  to 

Hu.->%Nui    li.'i  >;.^:liict  and  diversified  purposes  o(  naming  objects,  a$*trti%g 


40 


ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 


tipodes,  credenda,  literati,  and  minutisB,  are  always  plural.     Bandit  is  now 
used  as  the  singular  of  Banditti. 

8.  The  following  nouns  form  their  plurals  not  according  to  any  general 
rule  ;  thus,  man,  men  ;  woman,  women  ;  child,  children  ;  ox,  oxen  ;  tooth, 
teeth ;  goose,  geese  ;  foot,  feet ;  mouse,  mice  ;  louse,  lice  ;  brother,  brothers 
or  brethren ;  cow,  cows  or  kine ;  penny,  pence,  or  pennies  when  the  coin 
is  meant;  die,  dice  for  play,  dies /or  coining ;  p?a  and  fish,  pease  and  fish 
when  the  species  is  meant,  but  peas  amd  Jishes  when  we  refer  to  the  number ; 
as,  six  peas,  Xen  fishes. 

9.  The  following  compounds  form  thejr  plurals  thus:  handful,  handfuls ; 
cupful,  cupfuls ;  spoonful,  spoonfuls: — brother-in-law,  brothers-in-law;  court- 
martial,  courts-martial. 

The  following  words  form  their  plurals  according  to  the  rules  of  the  lan- 
guages from  which  they  are  adopted. 

Singular. 
Antithesis 
Apex 


Appendix 

Arcanum 
Automaton 
Axis 
Basis 

Beau 
Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

DiiHresis 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratnm 


Plural. 

antitheses    * 

apices 
(  appendixes  or 
\  appendices 

arcana 

automata 

axes 

basf!8 

bef.ux  or 

beaus 

calces  or 

calxes 

cherubim  or 

cherubs 

crises 

criteria 

data 

diiereses 

desiderata 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 

encomia  or 

encomiums 

errata 


Singular. 
Genius 
Genus 
Hypothesis 
Ignis  fatuus 

Index 

Lamina 
Magus 

Memorandum 

Matamorpbcsit 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Stamen 

Seraph 

Stimulus 
Stratum 
Thesis 
Vertex 

Vortex 


Plural. 

genii* 

genera 

hypotheses 

ignes  fatui 

indices  or 

indexest 

laminie 

magi 

memoranda  or 

iT'irt  >randums 

metamorphoses 

parentheses 

phenomena 

radii  or 

radiuses 

stamina 

seraphim  or 

seraphs 

stimuli 

strata 

theses 

vertices 


1' 


vortices  or 
ortexes 


*  Genii,  imaginary  spirits :  geniuses,  persons  of  great  mental  abilities, 
t  Indexes,  when  pointers  or  tables  of  contents  are  meant:  indices,  wh«su 
referring  to  algebraic  quantities.  * 

truths,  pointing  out  and  limiting  objects,  attributhig  qualities  to  objects,  con- 
necting objects,  and  so  on  ;  and  on  Xhisfact  is  founded  the  true  philosophical 
prificiple  of  the  classification  of  words.  Hence,  an  arrangement  of  wi>rds 
into  classes  according  to  this  prhiciple,  followed  by  a  development  and  illus- 
tnition  of  the  principles  and  rules  that  regulate  us  in  the  proper  use  and  ap- 
plication of  words  in  oral  and  written  discourse,  appears  to  approximate  tts 
near  to  a  tme  definition  of  philosophical  grammar,  as  any  I  am  capable  of  giving. 
Noims,  or  the  names  of  the  objects  of  our  perceptions,  doubtless  consti- 
tuted the  original  class  of  words  ;  (if  I  may  be  allowed  to  assume  such  a  hy- 
pothesis as  an  orig^inal  class  of  words;;   but  the  ever-active  principle  of 


NOUIfS. — CASK.  41 

CASE.                                         • 
Case,  when  applied  to  nouns  and  pronouns,  means 
the  different  state,  situation,  or  position  they  have  in 
relation  to  other  words.     Nouns  have  three  cases,  the 
nominative,  the  possessive,  and  the  objective.         ^ 

I  deem  the  essential  qualities  of  ca^e,  in  English,  to  consist,  not 
ill  the  clianges  or  injlectioiis  produced  on  nouns  and  pronouns,  but 
ill  the  various  otfice*?  which  they  perform  in  a  sentence,  by  as- 
suming: different  positions  in  regard  to  other  words.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  definition,  these  cases  can  be  easily  explained  on 

isonini;  principles,  founded  in  the  nature  of  things. 

Now,  five  grains  of  common  sense  will  enable  any  one  to  com- 
pit'hend  what  is  meant  by  case.  Its  real  character  is  extremely 
simple  ;  but  in  the  different  grammars  it  assumes  as  many  mean- 
ings as  Proteus  had  shapes.  The  most  that  has  been  written  on 
it,  however,  is  mere  verbiage.  What,  then,  is  meant  by  case  7 
In  speaking  of  a  horse^  for  instance,  we  say  he  is  in  a  good  casc^ 
when  he  is  fat,  and  in  a  bad  case^  when  he  is  lean,  and  needs 
more  oats  ;  and  in  this  sense  we  apply  the  term  case  to  denote  the 
stale  or  condition  of  the  horse.  So,  when  we  place  a  noun  before 
a  verb  as  actor  or  subject,  we  say  it  is  in  the  nominative  case  ; 
but  when  it  follows  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition,  we  say  it  has 
another  case  ;  that  is,  it  assumes  a  new  position  or  situation  in  the 
sentence :  and  this  we  call  the  objective  case.  Thus,  the  boy 
gathers  fruit.  Here  the  boy  is  represented  as  acting.  He  is, 
therefore,  in  the  nominative  case.  But  when  I  say,  Jane  struck 
the  boy,  I  do  not  represent  the  boy  as  the  actor^  but  as  the  object 
of  the  action.  He  is,  therefore,  in  a  new  case  or  condition.  And 
when  I  say,  This  is  the  boy^s  hat,  I  do  not  speak  of  the  boy  either 
as  acting  or  as  acted  upon;  but  as  possessing  something:  for 
which  reason  he  is  in  the  possessive  case.  Hence,  it  is  clear,  that 
n  uns  have  three  cases  or  positions. 

As  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  the  noun  are  insepa- 

)ciutiou,  sorin  Iniusformed  nuims  into  verbs,  by  making  tljom,  when  em- 
.>y«l  in  ft  pnrtirnlftr  mnnner,  expressive  of  affimiation.     This  fimne  princi- 
ple ttUn  .  '"  iting  names  to  the  purpo^  of  attribiilin'i  (puU- 
UJeM  l«)  '  ;  and  in  thi.s  way  was  constitut*Hl  the  cl;i.ss  of 

«<»rilji  I .....  .  ..  .J-     .....  i iJjute:     By  the  same  priuciplo  were  formed 

i  the  i»ther  classes. 

In  the  followinfr  expo«itio«  of  English  prnmmnr  on  scientific  principles,  1 
^itlo  wonls  into  irrni  cl.i»s«*s;  Si'uiu  or  Xnmi'g,  Verba,  Adjertincf, 
».  or  Attribuie$,  Adverbs,  PreposUians,  Pronowu,  and  Conjunctions  or 
".. .  .'ii?«r«. 

For  an  explaaution  of  the  nonn,  refer  to  the  body  of  the  work 

4» 


42  ErrMOLOGY  and  syntax.  j 

f  fably  connected  with  the  verb,  it  is  impossible  for  you  to  under-  j 
stand  them  until  you  shall  have  acquired  some  knowledge  of  this  " 
part  of  speech.     I  will,  therefore,  now  give  you  a  partial  descrip- 
tion of  the  verb  in  connexion  with  the  noun  ;  which  \vill  enable 
me  to  illustrate  the  cases  of  the  noun  so  clearly,  that  you  may 
easily  comprehend  their  nature.  ,  j 

In  the  formation  of  language,  mankind,  in  order  to  hold  converse 
with  each  other,  found  it  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  give  names  I 
to  the  various  objects  by  which  they  were  surrounded.  Hence  the  | 
origin  of  the  first  part  of  speech,  which  we  denominate  the  noun.  "\ 
But  merely  to  name  the  objects  which  they  beheld  or  thought  of,  | 
was  not  sufficient  for  their  purpose.  They  perceived  that  these  ] 
objects  existed,  moved,  acted,  or  caused  some  action  to  be  done,  j 
In  looking  at  a  man,  for  instance,  they  perceived  that  he  lived,  1 
walked,  ate,  smiled,  talked,  ran,  and  so  on.  They  perceived  that  j 
plants  grow,  flowers  bloom,  and  rivers  flow.  Hence  the  necessity.^ 
of  another  part  of  speech,  whose  office  it  should  be  to  express  these  \ 
existences  and  actions.     This  second  class  of  words  we  call  \ 

_  _  VERBS. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  i 

to  SUFFER ;  as,  I  am  ;  1  rule  ;  I  am  ruled.  ' 

Verbs   are    of  three   kinds,   active,   passive,    and  , 

neuter.     They  are  also  divided  into  regular,  irregular,  j 

and'  defective.  , 

The  term  verh  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  verhum,  whicli  j 
signifies  a  ivord.  This  part  of  speech  is  called  a  verh  or  wordf  j 
because  it  is  deemed  the  most  important  word  in  every  sentence :  i 
and  without  a  verb  and  nominative,  either  expressed  or  implied,  ; 
no  sentence  can  exist.  The  noun  is  the  original  and  leading  i 
part  of  speech  ;  the  verb  comes  next  in  order,  and  is  far  more  ', 
complex  than  the  noun»  These  two  are  the  most  useful  in  the  i 
language,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  science  of  grammar.  The  .- 
other  eight  parts  of  speech  are  subordinate  to  these  tw^  anrl  as  | 
you  will  hereafter  learn,  of  minor  importance.  ; 

For  all  practical  purposes,  the  foregoing  definition  and  divTsicti  \ 
of  the  verb,  though,  perhaps,  not  philosophically  correct,  will  be  j 
found  as  convenient  as  any  other.  1  adopt  them,  therefore,  to  bo  ; 
consistent  with  the  principle,  that,  in  arranging  the  materials  of  ^ 
this  treatise,  I  shall  not  alter  or  reject  any  established  definition,  \ 
rule,  or  principle  of  grammar,  unless,  in  my  humble  judgment, 
some  practical  advantage  to  the  learner  is  thereby  gained.  The  ' 
following,  some  consider  a  good  definition.  .  * 

A  VERB  Ls  a  word  which  ex])rc!i.ses  qffirmahimi.  j 

■^  1 


VERBS. ACTIVB  AND  NEUTER.  48 

An  active  verb  expresses  action ;  and 

The  nominative  c^se  is  the  actor,  or  subject  of  the 
A  erb  ;  as,  John  writes. 

In  this  example,  which  is  the  verb  ?  You  know  it  is  the  word 
writes,  because  tliis  word  signifies  to  do  ;  that  is,  it  expresses  ac- 
tion, therefore,  according  to  the  definition,  it  is  an  active  verb. 
And  you  know,  too,  that  the  noun  John  is  the  actor,  therefore 
John  is  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  writes.  In  the  expres- 
sions, The  man  walks — The  boy  plays — Thunders  roll — War- 
riors fight — you  perceive  that  the  words  walks,  plays,  roll,  and 
Hght,  are  active  verbs  ;  and  you  cannot  be  at  a  loss  to  know,  that 
the  nouns  man,  boy,  thunders,  and  warriors,  are  in  the  nominative 
case. 

As  no  action  can  be  produced  without  some  agent  or  moving 
cause,  it  follows,  that  every  active  verb  must  have  some  actor  or 
agent.  This  actor,  doer,  or  producer  of  the  action,  is  the  nomina- 
tive. Nominative,  from  the  Latin  nomino,  literally  signifies  to 
name;  but  in  the  technical  sense  in  which  it  is  used  in  grammar, 
it  means  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  affirmation. 
This  subject  or  nominative  may  be  active,  passive,  or  venter,  as 
hereafter  exemplified. 

A  neuter  verb  expresses  neither  action  nor  passion, 
but  beivgy  or  a  state  of  being ;  as,  John  sits. 

Now,  in  this  example,  John  is  not  represented  as  an  actor,  but, 
as  the  subject  of  the  verb  sits,  therefore  John  is  in  the  nominative 
case  to  the  verb.     And  you  know  that  the  word  sits  does  not  ex- 

PHILOSOPHICAL    NOTES. 

riatisible  arguments  may  be  advanced,  for  rejecting  neuter  and  passive 
verbs ;  bnt  they  have  been  found  to  be  so  convenient  in  practice,  that  the 
the«»ry  which  recojruises  them,  has  stood  the  test  of  ages.  If  j^ou  tell  the 
young  learner,  that,  in  the  following  expressions,  The  church  resf»  on  its 
roundation;  The  book  lies  on  the  desk;  Tlie  boys  remain  (arc)  idle,  the 
nnutiii  ehttrek,  book,  and  boys,  are  repreaented  as  acting,  and,  therefore,  the 
v«m'-  '  '  1,  remain,  and  are,  are  active,  he  will  not  believe  you,  because 
til'  !'in  that  is  app;irent  to  his  senses.     And  should  you  proceed 

fi-  I  >y  a  l.-ihorod  and  metaphysical  investigation  and  development 

ilie  laws  of  motion,  attempt  to  prove  to  him  tliat  "  every  jMirtion  of  matter 

.•ifliif»iifed  by  «lifferent,  active  principles,  tending  to  priMluiY?  change,"  and, 

til'  .'  •        •  ■  .rsal  naturr   '       '  u-ling,  it  is  not  at  all 

pr  inre  his  tni  .  iu  opposition  to  the 

«'i    .  Of  what  ;i  iiers  i.s  a  theory  which 

V  cannot  coinpn^lirnd  I 

\mong  the  various  theorists  and  speculative  writers  on  philosophical  gram- 
mar, the  ingenious  Honie  Tooke  stands  pre-eminent ;  but,  tmfortimately,  his 
priucipal  speculatioas  on  the  verb,  have  n^yer  mej  tho  public  eye.     WUliam 


44  '  ETYMOLOt^Y  AND  SYNTAX.  i 

press  apparent  action,  but  a  condition  of  being ;  that  is,  it  repre 
sents,  John  in  a  particular  state  of  existence  ;  therefore  sits  is  a 
neuter  verb.  In  speaking  of  the  neuter  gender  of  nounsj  I  in-j 
formed  you,  that  neuter  nneans  neither;  from  which  it  follows,  that| 
neuter  gender  implies  neither  gender ;  that  is,  neither  masculinel^ 
nor  feminine.  Hence,  by  an  easy  transition  of  thought,  youl 
learn,  that  neuter,  when  applied  to  verbs,  means  neither  of  tlie^ 
other  iwo  classes ;  Uiiat  is,  a  neuter  verb  is  one  which  is  neitherj 
active  nor  passive.  In  these  examples,  The  man  stands — The^ 
lady  lives — The  child  sleeps — The  world  exists — the  words  stands^} 
lives,  sleeps,  and  exists,  are  iieuter  verbs;  and  the  nouns,  manA 
lady,  child,  and  icorld,  are  all  in  the  nominative  case,  because  each  • 
is  the  subject  of  a  verb.  Thus  you  perceive,  that  when  a  noun ! 
is  in  the  nominative  case  to  an  active  verb,  it  is  the  actor ;  and  j 
when  it  is  nominative  to  a  neuter  verb,  it  is  not  an  actor,  but  the 
subject  of  the  verb.  ; 

Some  neuter  verbs  express  being  in  general ;  as.  The  man  is  ;>] 
Kingdoms  exist.  Others  express  being  in  some  particular  state  ;  '■ 
as,  The  man  stands,  sits,  lies,  or  hangs.  ; 

I  will  now  give  you  two  signs,  which  will  enable  you  to  dis-  '• 
tinguish  the  verb  from  other  parts  of  speech,  when  you  cannot  \ 
tell  it  by  its  signification.  Any  word  that  will  make  sense  withii 
to  before  it,  is  a  verb.  Thus,  to  run,  to  write,  to  smile,  to  sing,  < 
to  hear,  to  ponder,  to  live,  to  breathe,  are  verbs.  Or,  any  word  ' 
that  will  conjugate,  is  a  verb.  Thus,  I  run,  thou  runnest,  he  runs ;  \ 
I  write,  thou  writest,  he  writes ;  I  smile,  &c.  But  the  words,  ! 
hoy,  lady,  child,  and  world,  will  not  make  sense  with  to  prefixed  ' 
— to  boy,  to  lady,  to  world,  is  nonsense.     Neither  will  they  con-  ] 

S.  CarJell  has  also  i-eiulered  himself  conspicuous  in  the  philological  field,  by  ' 
taking  a  bolder  stand  than  any  of  his  predecessors.  His  view  of  the  verb  ia  j 
novel,  and  ingeniously  supported.     The  following  is  the  substance  of  liis  theoxy  - 

OF    THE    VERB.  | 

A  VERB  is  a  word  which  expresses  action ;  as,  Man  exists ;  j 
Trees  groio  ;  Waters  Jloi/)  ;  Mountains  5/«7icZ  ;  lam.  j 

All  verbs  are  active,  and  have  one  ol)ject  or  more  than  one,  expressed  or  ! 
implied.  The  pWlav  stands ;  that  ia,  it  Jceeps  iise/f  hi  an  erect  or  standing  i 
posture ;  it  upholds  or  snstaiiis  ilaelf  in  that  position.  They  are ;  i.  e.  they  \ 
air  themselves,  or  breathe  air ;  they  inxpirU,  vivify,  or  uphold  themselves  by  < 
inhaling  air.  ,  i 

Many  verbs  whose  objects  are  seldom  expressed,  always  have  a  personal  \ 
or  verbal  one  implied.  The  clouds  tnovi' ;  i.  e.  move  fhemaflvi'n  along.  The  ^ 
troops  marched  twenty  miles  a  day;  i.  e.  marched  thrmselves.  The  moon  -* 
shines: — Tlie  moon  shines  or  shcd.s  &  shiniri^,  sheen,  lustre,  ov  brig^hfnesg.  | 
The  sparrow  flies:— Jlies  or  takes  9.  flight.  Talkers  talk  or  8j)eiik  word^  or  i 
talk;  Walkers  walk  tt'«/A/«o'«  or  w;a/is ;  The  rain  rains  ram;  Sitters  sit  or  \ 
hold  sittings  or  sessions.  ■ 


VSBBS. ^NUMBER  AND  FEQSOM.  46 

jugate — I  lady,  thou  ladiest,  <Stc.  is  worse  than  nonsense.  Hence 
you  perceive,  that  these  words  are  not  verbs.  There  are  some 
exceptions  to  tiieso  rules,  for  verbs  arc  sometimes  used  as  nouns. 
This  will  bo  explained  by  and  by. 

To  verbs  belong  numbery  person,  mood,  and  tense. 

At  present  I  shall  speak  only  of  the  number  and  person  of 
verbs  ;  but  hereafter  I  will  give  you  a  full  explanation  of  all  their 
properties.  And  permit  me  to  inform  you,  that  I  shall  not  lead 
you  into  the  intricacies  of  the  science,  until,  by  gradual  and  easy 
progressions,  you  are  enabled  to  comprehend  the  principles  in- 
volved in  them.  Only  such  principles  will  be  elucidated,  as  you 
are  prepared  to  understand  at  the  time  they  are  unfolded  before 
you.  You  must  not  be  too  anxious  to  get  along  rapidly  ;  but  en- 
deavor to  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  one  principle,  be- 
fore you  undertake  another.  This  lecture  will  qualify  you  for 
the  next. 

Number  and  person  of  verbs.  You  recollect,  that  the  nom- 
inative is  the  actor  or  subject,  and  the  active  verb  is  the  action  per- 
formed by  the  nominative.  By  this  you  perceive,  that  a  very 
intimate  connexion  or  relation  exists  between  the  nominative  case 
and  the  verb.  If,  therefore,  only  one  creature  or  thing  acts,  only 
one  action,  at  the  same  instant,  can  be  done ;  as.  The  girl  writes. 
The  nominative  girl  is  here  of  the  singular  number,  because  it 
signifies  but  one  person  ;  and  the  verb  writes  denotes  but  one  ac- 
tion, which  the  girl  performs ;  therefore  the  verb  writes  is  of  the 

To  prove  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  neuter  verb,  the  following  appear 
to  be  the  strongest  arguments  adduced. 

1.  No  portion  of  matter  is  ever  in  a  state  of  perfect  quiescence  ;  but  tho 
component  parts  of  every  thing  are  at  all  times  "  inttxienced  by  diflercnt,  ac- 
tive principles,  tending  to  produce  change."  Hence,  it  ftiUows,  that  no  be- 
ing or  thing  can  be  represented  in  a  neuter  or  non-acting  state. 

This  argument  8up{K)s<'s  the  essential  character  of  the  verb  to  be  identified 

with  the  primary  laws  of  action,  as  inifolded  by  the  principles  of  physical 

•cicnce.     The  correctness  of  this  position  may  be  doubted  ;  but  if  it  can  be 

clfirly  demonstrated,  that  every  particle  of  matter  is  always  in  motion,  it 

•    l)y  any  means,  follow,  that  we  cannot  speak  of  things  in  a  state  of 

What  is  false  in  fact  may  bo  correct  in  gnimmar.      The  point 

,^ ...  IS  not  whether  things  alvftys  act,  but  whether,  when  we  assert  or  of- 

firtK  something  resptcling  them,  we  always  represent  them  as  acting. 

2.  Verbs  were  originally  used  to  express  the  motions  or  changes  of  things 
which  nnnluccd  obvious  actions,  ami,  by  an  easy  transition,  were  aften\ard 
applied,  in  the  sjime  way,  to  things  whose  actions  were  not  apparent, 

Tljis  assttriiption  is  untenable,  and  altogether  gratuitous. 

3.  Verbs  called  neuter  are  ustnl  in  the  imperative  nKKnl ;  and,  as  this  mood 
oomroajid.<*  w)me  one  to  do  Bomelhing,  any  verb  which  adoptj^  it,  miLst  be  ac 
tive.  Thus,  in  the  common  place  phra«t?s,  "  Be  there  quickly;  Stand  out  of 
my  way ;  Sit  or  lie  farther." 


46  ETYBIOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

singular  number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  girl.  When  the 
nominative  case  is  'plural,  the  verb  must  be  plural ;  as,  girU  write. 
Take  notice,  the  singular  verb  ends  in  5,  but  the  noun  is  generally 
plural  when  it  ends  in  s;  thus,  The  girl  writes — Xhe  girh  write. 

Person,  strictly  speaking,  is  a  quality  that  belongs  not  to  verls^ 
but  to  nouns  and  pronouns.  We  say,  however,  that  the  verb 
must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  person,  as  well  as  in  number ; 
that  is,  the  verb  must  be  spelled  and  spoken  in  such  a  mannei 
as  to  correspond  with  \he  first,  second,  or:  third  person  of  the  noun 
or  pronoun  which  is  its  nominative. 

I  will  now  show  you  how  the  verb  is  varied  in  order  to  agree 
with  its  nominative  in  number  and  person.  I,  Thoti,  He,  She, 
It ;  We,  Ye  or  You,  They,  are  personal  pronouns.  I  is  of  the 
first  person,  and  singular  number  ;  Thou  is  second  person,  sing.; 
He,  She,  or  It,  is  third  per.  sing.;  We  is  first  per.  plural;  Ye  or 
You  is  second  per.  plural ;  They  is  third  per.  plural.  These 
'jronouns  are  the  representatives  of  nouns,  and  perform  the  same 
office  that  the  nouns  would  for  which  they  stand.  When  placed 
before  the  verb,  they  are,  therefore,  the  nominatives  to  the  verb. 

Notice,  particularly,  the  different  variations  or  endings  of  the 
verb,  as  it  is  thus  conjugated  in  the 

Indicative  Mood,  Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Per.  I  walk,  1.  Per.  We  Walk, 

2.  Per.  Thou  walke*^,  2.  Per.   Ye  or  you  walk, 

3.  Per.  He  walks,  or     ^  3.  Per.  They  walk,  or  ^ 

the  boy  walks,  >  the  boys  walk. ) 

or  walke^A.        ; 

It  is  admitted  that  these  verbs  are  here  eraployecl  in  an  active  sense ;  but 
it  is  certain,  that  they  are  not  used  according  to  their  proper,  literal  meaning. 
When  I  tell  a  man,  literaUy,  to  stand,  sit,  or  lie,  by  movins:  he  would  disobey 
me  ;  but  when  I  say,  "  Stand  out  of  my  way,"  I  employ  the  neuter  verb 
stand,  instead  of  the  active  verb  move  or  gn,  and  in  a  correspondent  sense. 
My  meaning  is.  Move  yourself  out  of  my  way;  or  take  your  stand  some- 
where else.  This,  hovvever,  does  not  prove  that  stand  is  properly  used.  If 
we  choose  to  overstep  the  bounds  of  custom,  we  can, employ  any  word  in  tlie 
language  as  an  active-transitive  verb.  Be,  sit,  and  lie,  may  be  explained  in 
the  same  manner. 

4.  Neuter  verbs  are  used  in  connexion  with  adverbs  which  express  the  man- 
ner o(  art  ion.  They  must,  therefore,  be  considered  active  verbs.  The  child 
sleeps  soundly  ;  He  sits  rreiiteelly  ;  They  live  contentedly  and  happily  together. 

The  class  of  verbs  that  are  never  emy)loyed  us  active,  is  small.  By  using 
adverbs  in  connexion  with  verbs,  we  can  fairly  prove  that  some  verbs  are  not 
active.  It  is  hicorrect  to  say,  I  am  happily  ;  They  were  peacefully;  She  re- 
mains quietly  ;  The  fields  apj^e^ir  greenly.  These  verbs  in  their  common 
acceptation,  do  not  express  action ;  for  which  reason  we  say,  I  am  happy ; 
Thev  are  veaceM  •  &c.     But  in  the  expressions.  The  child  sleeps  soundly : 


VKKBS. —  NU.MllLR   AND   PBRSOI*.  4^ 

This  display  of  the  verb  shows  you,  that  whenever  il  ends  in 
est,  il  is  of  the  second  person  singular  ;  but  when  the  verb  ends 
in  s,  or  eth,  it  is  of  the  third  person  singular.  Walkest,  ridcsl^ 
standestj  are  of  the  second  person  singular ;  and  walks  or  waikethf 
ridfs  or  ridethy  stands  or  standeth,  are  ofthe  third  person  singular. 

1  have  told  you,  that  when  the  nominative  is  singular  number, 
the  verb  must  be ;  when  the  nonrtinative  is  plural,  the  verb  must 
be  ;  and  when  the  nominative  is  first,  second,  or  third  person,  the 
verb  must  be  of  the  same  person.  If  you  look  again  at  the  fore- 
going conjugation  of  walk,  you  will  notice  that  the  verb  varies 
its  endings  in  the  singular,  in  order  to  agree  in  form  with  the 
first,  second,  and  third  person  of  its  nominative ;  but  in  the  plu- 
ral it  does  not  vary  its  endings  from  the  first  person  singular. 
The  verb,  however,  agrees  in  seiise  with  its  nominative  in  the 
plural,  as  well  as  in  the  singular.  Exercise  a  little  mind,  and 
you  will  perceive  that  agreement  and  government  in  language  do 
not  consist  merely  in  tlje  form  of  words.  Now,  is  it  not  clear, 
that  when  I  say,  I  walk,  the  verb  walk  is  singular,  because  it  ex- 
presses but  one  action  ?  And  when  I  say.  Two  men  tc^J.  is  it 
not  equally  apparent,  that  walk  is  plural,  because  it  expreSes  two 
actions?  In  the  sentence,  Ten  men  walk,  the  verb  walk  denotes 
ten  actions,  for  there  are  ten  actors.  Common  sense  teaches  you, 
that  there  must  be  as  many  actions  as  there  are  actors  ;  and  that  the 
verb,  when  it  has  no  form  or  ending  to  show  it,  is  as  strictly  plu- 
ral, as  when  it  has.  So,  in  the  phrase,  We  walk,  the  verb  walk 
is  frst  person,  because  it  expresses  the  actions  performed  by  the 
speakers :    Ye  or  you  walk,  the  verb  is  second  person,  denoting 

She  *iU»  gracefully  ;  They  live  happily  aiul  contentedly  ;  we  employ  the  verba 
tirep$,  fits,  aiul  live,  in  nn  active  sense.  When  uo  aciiun  is  iuteuded,  we  say, 
Thoy  live  happif  and  co:itented. 

li,  on  siieutitio  principles,  it  can  be  proved  that  those  verbs  generally  de- 
nominated neuter,  originally  expressed  action,  their  present,  accepted  mean- 
ing  will  Htill  opj>oM»  thn  theor)',  lor  the  generality  of  mankind  do  not  attach 
to  til.        '      ■  '         *■ 

TI  nresrnt  a  brief  but  impartial  abstract  of  the  morf^rw 

tfieot)  .  _;  it  with  the  reatlcr  to  estimate  it  according  to  it» 

mlae. 

To  »riv«  «  «»nti«fartory  dffinitirm  of  the  ▼«»rh,  or  wich  a  rmt*  ««  »>hnll  b#*  fotmd 
■         ■     ■■  '  ■       ""      'i!-t  hithertq  1^   "    '    '       '    "    ind 

1  writers,      i  ili- 

;:>ist   in  espn  _      .  .  it 

:iuetl  wArn  a  verb  eTpret.ne*  atfinnation.     In  Knglish, 
-    '.vonls  nppropriuted  to  exprrm  dfllrmation,  are  often 
u>-'ii  ;  our  idea  of  a  Ifirmation,  in  such  instances,  being 

the  (  V. 

T.  /.,...  ...,,1  ;  ,^.    ^xoto  mornl  actioriji/' the  words 

re  n'tme$  of  actions.     So, 
verb,"  tlie  word  i9r»<«  is  a 


48  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX- 

the  actions  of  the  persons  spoken  to;  third  person,  TAey  walk  1 
The  verb,  tlien,  when  correctly  written,  always  agrees,  in  s^nscy 
with  its  nominative  in  number  and  person. 

At   present   you   are  learning  two  parts   of  speech,  neither  j 

of  which  can  be  understood  without  a,  knowledge  of  the  other,  j 

It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  explain  them  both  in  the  same  i 

lecture.     You  have  been  already  informed,  that  nouns  have  three  \ 

cases  ;  the  nominative,  the  possessive,  and  the  objective.  ^ 

Possessive  Case.     T\iQ  possessive  case  denotes  the  • 

possessor  of  something ;  as,  This  is  John's  horse,  ! 

This  expression  implies,  that  John  is  the   owner  or  possessor  j 

of  the  horse ;  and,  that  horse  is  the  property  which  he  posses<5es.  j 

When  I  say,  These  are  the  men's,  and  those,  the  hoys^  hats,  i 

the  two  words,  "  boys'  hats,"  plainly  convey  the  idea,  if  they  \ 

have  any  meaning  at  all,  that  the  boys  own  or  possess  the  hats.  1 

"  Samuel  Badger  sells  boys'  hats."      Who  owns  the  hats  ?     Mr.  j 

Badger.     How  is  that  fact  ascertained  ?      Not  by  the  words,  | 

"  boys'  hats,"  which,  taken  by  themselves,  imply,  not  that  they  \ 

are  Mr.  Badger's  hats,  nor  that* they  are  for  boys,  but  that  they  j 

are  hats  of,  or  belonging  to,  or  possessed  by  boys.     But  we  iifer  i 

from  the  words  connected  with  the  phrase,  "  boys'  hats,"  that  the  \ 

boys  are  not  yet,  as  the  phrase  literally  denotes,  in  the  actual  ' 

possession  of  the  hats.     The  possession  is  anticipated.  ] 

In  the  phrases,  fne  hats,  coarse  hats,  high-crowned  hats,  broad-  \ 

brimmed  hats,  woollen,  new,  ten,  some,  these,  many  hats,  the  words  \ 

in  italics, 'are  adjectives,  because  they  restrict,  qualify,  or  define  \ 

the  term  hats  ;  but  the  term  boys'  does  not  describe  or  limit  the  | 
meaning  of  hats.     Boys,'  therefore,  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  an 

adjective.  j 

"  The  slave'6  master."      Does  the  slave  possess  the  master  ?  . 

Yes.     The  slave  has  a  master.     If  he  has  him,  then,  he  possesses  j 

^  him ; — he  sustains  that  relation  to  him  which  we  call  possession,  i 

noun ;  but  when  I  say,  "  John,  rente your  copy,"  write  is  called  a  verb.  *!! 

Why  is  this  word  considered  a  noun  in  one  construction,  and  a  verb  in  the  1 

^    other,  when  both  consti-uctions,  until  you  pass  beyond  the  word  write,  are  "" 

exactly  alike  ?     If  write  does  not  express  action  in  the  forrner  sentence,  nei-  ^ 

ther  does  it  in  the  latter,  for,  in  both,  it  is  introduced  in  the  same  manner.  | 

On  scientific  prijiciples,  wHte  must  be  considered  a  noun  in  the  latter  sen  1 

tence,  for  it  does  not  express  action,  or  make  an  affirmation  ;  but  it  merely 

names  the  action  which  I  wish  Jolm  to  perform,  and  affirmation  is  the  in/e-  i 

rential  meaning.  j 

Tiie  verb  in  tlie  infinitive,  as  well  as  in  the  imperative  mood,  is  divested  t, 

of  its  affirmative  or  verbal  force.     In  both  these  moods,  it  is  always  present-  I 

ed  in  its  noun-state.  j 

If,  after  diimer,  I  say  to  a  servant,  "  Wtne,^'  he  infers,  that  I  wish  hhn  to  ,; 


NOi;.xo  ANi>  Viii;il:>. — PAttBlNO.  4ft 

A  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  always  known  by  its  having 
an  afiostropho,  and  generally  an  *  after  it;  thus,  Johns  hat; 
llu;  boys  coat.  When  a  plural  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  ends 
in  *,  the  apf)strophe  is  added,  but  no  additional  s ;  as,  '^  Boys* 
hats ;  Eagles'  wings."  When  a  singular  noun  ends  in  ss,  the 
apostropiie  only  is  added;  as,  "For  goodness'  sake;  for  rig}U- 
eotisness*  sake  ;"  except  the  word  witness  ;  as,  "  The  witness's  tes- 
tinv>ny."  Wlien  a  noun  in  the  posscssiy,^  case  ends  in  ence, 
the  s  is  omitted,  but  the  apostrophe  is  i-elaiuc^ ;  as,  "  For  con- 
science* Fake." 

Now  please  to  turn  back,  and  read  over  this  and  the  preceding 
lecture  iJiree  times,  and  endeavor,  not  only  to  understand,  but, 
also,  to  remember,  what  you  read.  In  reading,  proceed  thus  : 
read  one  sentence  over  slowly,  and  then  look  olF  tlie  book,  and 
ref»eat  it  two  or  three  times  over  in  your  mind.  After  that,  take 
another  sentence  and  proceed  in  the  same  manner,  and  so  on 
through  the  whole  lecture.  Do  not  presume  to  think,  that  these 
directions  are  of  no  real  consequence  to  you  ;  for,  unless  you  fol- 
low them  strictly,  you  need  not  expect  to  make  rapid  progress. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  you  proceed  according  to  my  instructions, 
you  will  be  sure  to  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  grammar 
in  a  short  time. — When  you  shall  have  complied  with  this  requi- 
sition, you  may  commit  the  following  order  of  parsing  a  noun, 
and  the  order  of  parsing  a  verb  ;  and  then  you  will  be  prepared 
to  parse  or  analyze  the  following  examples. 

ANALYSIS,  OR  PARSING. 

Do  you  recollect  the  meaning  of  the  word  analysis  ?  If  you 
do  not,  I  will  explain  it :  and  first,  I  wish  you  to  remjsmber,  that 
analysis  is  the  reverse  of  synthesis.  Synthesis  is  the  act  of  com- 
bming  simples  so  as  to  form  a  whole  or  compound.     Thus,  in 

bring  me  wine;  but  all  this  is  not  said.  If  I  say,  Brinp  some  wine,  he,  in 
like  manner,  understands,  that  I  wish  him  to  brin?  me  wine;  but  all  that  is 
expressed,  is  the  name  of  the  action,  and  of  the  obj«?ct  of  the  action.  In  fact, 
&8  much  is  done  by  inference,  as  by  actual  expression,  in  every  branch  ol 
language,  for  thought  is  too  quick  to  be  wholly  transmitted  by  words. 

It  is  generally  conceded,  that  the  termination  of  our  verbs,  e$t,  etk,  n,  ed, 
niu\,  al*n.  of  th«  other  parts  of  speech,  were  originally  separate  words  of  dis- 
!'  '    .       nil  that,  although  they  have  been  contracted,  and,  by  the 

ruage,  have  b«'cn  miule  to  roalest^e  with  the  words  in  oon- 
I  li  they  are  employed,  yet,  in  their  present  character  of  ter- 

minations, they  retain  their  primitive  meaning  and  lorce.     To  denote  that  a 
o-rbnl  n»»?ne  was  employed  as  a  verb,  the  Saxons  affixed  to  it  a  verbalizing 
lus,  tKe  (to  take,  hnM)  was  the  nouri-stiilo  of  the  verb  ;  ami  when 
•   as  a  verb,  they  added  tho  termination  an  ;   tluis,  the^n.     The 

~i  added,  wa«  a  sign  that  ajf\rmnii„n   w  .*  inr.n.l.d.     The  same 

5 


50  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

putting  together  letters  so  as  to  form  syllables,  syllables  so  as  tc 
form  words,  words  so  as  to  form  sentences,  and  sentences  so  as  to 
form  a  discourse,  the  process  is  called  synthetic.  Analysis,  on 
the  contrary,  is  the  act  of  decomposition  ;  that  is,  the  act  of  sepa- 
rating any  thing  compounded  into  its  simple  parts,  and  thereby 
exhibiting  its  elementary  principles.  Etymology  treats  of  the 
analysis  of  language.  To  analyze  a  sentence,  is  to  separate 
from  one  another  and  classify  the  different  words  of  which  it  is 
composed  ;  and  to  analyze  or  parse  a  word,  means  to  enumerate 
and  describe  all  its  various  properties,  and  its  grammatical  rela- 
tions with  respect  to  other  words  in  a  sentence,  and  trace  it  through 
all  its  inflections  or  changes.  Perhaps,  to  you,  this  will,  at  first, 
appear  to  be  of  little  importance  ;  but,  if  you  persevere,  you  will 
hereafter  find  it  of  great  utility,  for  parsing  will  enable  you  to 
detect,  and  correct,  errors  in  composition. 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 

The  order  of  parsing  a  Noun,  is — a  noun,  and 
why  ? — common,  proper,  or  collective,  and  why  ? — 
gender,  and  why  1 — person,  and 'why  ? — number,  and 
why  ? — case,  and  why  ? — Rule: — decline  it. 

The  order  of  parsing  a  Verb,  is — a  verb,  and  why  ?- 
active,  passive,  or  neuter,  and  why  ? — if  active — tran- 
sitive or  intransitive,  and  why? — if  passive — how  is  it 
formed? — regular,  irregular,  or  defective,  and  why  ? — 
mood,  and  why  ? — tense,  and  why  ? — person  and  num- 
ber, and  why? — with  what  does  it  agree? — Rule: — 
conjugate  it. 

I  will  now  parse  two  nouns  according  to  the  order,  and,  in  so 
doing,  by  applying  the  definitions  and  rules,  I  shall  answer  al 
those  questions  given  in  tbe  order.     If  you  have  jperfccuy  com- 

{)rocedure  has  been  adopted,  and,  in  many  instances,  is  still  practisecl,  in  our 
angnai,'e.  An,  originally  affixed  to  our  verbs,  in  the  progress  of  i-efinem«M)t, 
was  chansed  to  en,  and  finally  dropped.  A  few  centiu-ies  ago,  the  plcral 
uumber  of  our  verbs  v^'as  denoted  by  the  termir»ation  &fi ;  thus,  they  wci  "u, 
they  loven ;  but,  as  these  terminations  do  not  supersede  the  necessity  of  ox 
pressing  the  sribjcct  of  affinnation,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  verbs, 
they  have  been  laid  aside,  as  luinecessaiy  excrescences.  For  the  sfime  rea- 
son, we  r^ht,  without  any  dis[>ai'agemeifl  to  the  language,  dispense  with 
the  terminations  of  onr  verbs  in  the  singular. 

In  su]>j)ort  of  the  position,  that  these  tenniiiations  were  once  separate 
words,  we  can  trace  many  of  tliem  to  their  origin  To  denote  the  feiniiiino 
gender  of  some  nouns,  we  affix  ess;  as,  heir-^*,  instructi'<»*.s.  Kss  is  n  con- 
traction of  the  Hebrew  noun  essa,  a  female.     Of  oar  visrbs,  the  tenniiiatio:» 


NOU.NS  AMD  VERBS. PAUSING.  .")  1 

mtticd  tlio  order  of  parsing  a  noun  and  verb,  you  may  proceed 
wiih  me;  l.ut,  recollect,  yon  cannot  parse  a  verb  in  full,  until 
you  sball  have  had  a  more  complete  explanation  of  it, 

John's  hand  trembles. 

John's  is  a  noun,  [because  it  is]  the  name  of  a  person — proper, 
the  name  of  an  individual — masculine  gender,  it  denotes  a  male — 
lliirfl  person,  spoken  of — singular  number,  it  implies  but  one — 
and  in  ihi  po«*sessive  case,  it  denotes  possession — it  is  governed  by 
the  noun  "  hand,"  according  to 

Rule  12.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  gov- 
erned by  the  noun  it  possesses. 

Declined — Sing.  nom.  John,  poss.  John's,  obj.  John.  Plural — 
nom.  Johns,  poss.  Johns',  obj.  Johns. 

Hand  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  thing — common,  the  name  of  a 
sort  or  species  of  things — neuter  gender,  it  denotes  a  thing  with- 
out sex — third  person,  spoken  of — sing,  number,  it  implies  but 
one — and  in  the  nominative  case,  it  is  the  actor  and  subject  of 
the  verb  "  trembles,"  and  governs  it  agreeably  to 

Rule  3.  The  nominative  case  goi'cms  the  verb  : — that  is,  the 
nominative  determines  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb. 

Declined — Sing.  nom.  hand,  poss.  hand's,  obj.  hand.  Plur. 
nom.  hands,  poss.  hands',  obj.  hands. 

Trembles  is  a  verb,  a  word  which  signifies  to  do — active,  it  ex- 
presses action — third  person,  singular  number,  because  the  nom- 
inative "  hand  "  is  with  which  it  agree?,  according  to 

Rule  4.  Tlie  xerb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  number 
and  person. 

You  must  not  say  that  the  verb  is  of  the  third  person  because  it  is 
spoken  of.  The  verb  is  never  spoken  of;  but  it  is  of  the  third 
person,  and  singular  or  plural  number,  because  its  nominative  is. 

Conjugated — First  pers.  sing.  I  tremble,  *2  pers.  ihqfUlremblest,  3. 
pers.  he  trembles,  or,  the  hand  trembles.  Plural,  1  pers.  we  irem- 
ble,  2  pers.  ye  or  you  tremble,  3  pers.  tf  ey  or  the  hands  tremble. 

fat  i«  u  contmrtion  of  ^lofgf,  cfh,  of  /ln,th  j»  nf  doeit.  Wo  wiy,  thou  ilost  or 
dor**  love:  or  thou  Vwcst;  i.e.  lov.  \e-doctt.     Some  lielieve  Uietsf- 

turiiiiiiHtioiiH  to  be  contractions  «>l  rcth.  tui*.     We  affix  ff/,  a  ctm 

tnu-tion  of  dfde,  to  the  pivsent  tQiise  oi  verbs  to  deuote  that  the  action  nam 
c<l,  i"*,  dedf,  did,  dofd,  or  done. 

7''       '    '     '"         •'     ^"   *'  ■  '  r_  rr-!,^  ^^^^  ^j.  fjjrf,f.f  ^j^  nrcortl 

'mc  t"  yrr  ;  and  when  the  ens 

totn  "t  rf.  hrpaii  to  he  »lrop|'»'il 

it!*  phu-»*  iiitd  liitNUiiuf;  were  jiiMiffiiliy  i»u|»|>lif.l  hv  pivfixin.ii  one  of  lln's«» 
When  I  K»y,  "  I  am  gniu^  to  walk"  the  verbal  or  aHirinative  force  is  convey 
ed  by  the  \\m>  of  to,  meaning  the  same  an  do  ;  and  walk  is  employed  merely 


62  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

Government,  in  language,  consists  in  the  power 
which  one  word  has  over  another,  in  causing  that 
other  word  to  be  in  some  particular  case,  number, 
person,  mood,  or  tense, 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Rule  3.     The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb. 

If  you  employ  the  pronoun  I,  which  is  of  the  Jirst  person,  sin- 
gular number,  as  the  nominative  to  a  verb,  the  verb  must  be  of 
the  first  pers.  sing,  thus,  I  sj?iile  ;  and  when  your  nominative  is 
second  pers.  sing,  your  verb  must  be  ;  as,  thou  smilesf.  Why, 
in  the  latter  instance,  does  the  ending  of  the  verb  change  to  est  ? 
Because  the  nominative  changes,  And  if  your  nominative  ia 
third  person,  the  verb  will  vary  again ;  thus,  he  smiles,  the  man 
smiles.  How  clear  it  is,  then,  that  the  nominative  governs  the 
verb  ;  that  is,  the  nominative  has  power  to  change  the  form  and 
meaning  of  the  verb,  in  respect  to  num.  and  person.  Govern- 
ment,  thus  far,  is  evinced  in  the  form  of  the  words,  as  well  as 
in  the  sense: 

Rule  4.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  number 
and  person. 

It  is  improper  to  say,  thou  hear,  the  men  hears.  Why  im- 
proper ?  Because  hear  is  Jirst  pers.  and  the  nominative  thou  is 
second  pers.  hears  is  singular,  and  the  nom.  men  is  plural.  Rule 
4th  says.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative.  The  expres- 
sions should,  therefore,  be,  thou  hearer/,  the  men  hear  ;  and  then 
the  verb  would  agree  with  its  nominatives.  But  why  must  the 
verb  agree  with  its  nominative  ?  Why  must  we  say,  thou  talk- 
est,  the  man  talk^,  men  talk?  Because  the  genius  of  our  lan- 
guage, and  the  common  consent  of  those  who  speak  it,  require 
such  a  construction  :  and  this  requisition  amounts  to  a  law  or  rule. 
This  rule,  then,  is  founded  in  the  nature  of  things,  and  sanctioned 
by  good  usage. 

Rule  12.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  governed 
by  the  nimn  which  it  possesses. 

It  is  correct  to  say,  The  man  eats,  he  eats  ;  but  wo  cannot  say, 
the  7nan  dog  eats,  he  dog  eats.     Why  not  ?     Because  the  man  is 

as  a  verbal  name ;  tliat  is,  I  assert  that  I  shall  do  the  act  which  I  name  by 
tlie  word  icalk,  or  the  act  of  loalking. 

Pertraps  such  speculations  as  these  will  prove  to  be  more  curious  than 
profitri-ble.  If  it  be  made  clearly  to  appear,  that,  on  scientific  principles, 
whenever  the  verbal  name  is  unaccompanied  by  a  verbalizing  adjunct,  it  ia 
in  the  noun-sfate,  and  does  not  express  affirmation,  still  this  tlieory  would  be 
very  inconvenient  in  practice. 

I  shall  resume  tliis  subject  in  Lecture  XI.    ' 


i.wi..,o  AND  VERBS. PARSIWO.  58 

here  rrprcscnlod  as  the  possessory  and  d(^,  ihc  property,  or  thliiff 
pjssrsst'd  ;  and  the  genius  of  our  language  requires,  that  wlun 
we  add  to  tfje  passessor,  the  thing  which  he  is  represented  as  jxjs- 
sessing,  the  jx>ssessor  shall  take  a  particular  form  to  show  its  caAr, 
or  relation  to  the  property  ;  thus,  The  mail's  dog  eats,  hi3  dog  eats. 
You  perceive,  then,  that  the  added  noun,  denoting  the  thing  po.s- 
sessed,  has  power  to  clunige  the  form  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  de- 
noting the  pssessor,  according  to  Rule  12.  thus,  by  adding  dog, 
in  the  preceding  examples,  man  is  changed  to  man^Sf  and  he,  to 
his. 

Now  parse  the  sentence  which  I  have  parsed,  until  the  manner 
is  quite  familiar  to  you  ;  and  then  you  will  be  prepared  to  ana- 
lyze correctly  and  systematically,  the  following  exercises.  When 
you  parse,  you  may  spread  the  Compendium  before  you  ;  and,  if 
you  have  not  already  committed  the  definitions  and  rules,  you 
may  read  them  on  that,  as  you  apply  them.  This  mode  of  pro- 
cedure w  ill  enable  you  to  learn  all  the  definitions  and  rules  by 
applying  them  to  practice. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Rain  descends — Rains  descend — Snow  falls — Sn  )ws  fall — 
Thunder  rolls — Thunders  roll — Man's  worlds  decay — Men's  la- 
bors cease — John's  dog  barks — Eliza's  voice  trembles — Julia's 
sister's  child  improves — Peter's  cousin's  horse  limps. 

In  the  next  place,  I  will  parse  a  noun  and  a  neuter  verb,  which 
verb,  you  will  notice,  differs  from  an  active  only  in  one  respect. 

"  Birds  repose  on  the  branches  of  trees.  " 

Birds  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  thing  or  creature — common,  the 
name  of  a  genus  or  class — masculine  and  feminine  gender,  it 
denotes  both  males  and  females — third  person,  spoken  of — plural 
number,  it  implies  more  than  one — and  in  the  nominative  case, 
it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "  repose,"  and  governs  it  according 
to  Rule  3.  The  nomiiuitive  case  governs  the  verb.  Declined — 
Sing.  nom.  bird,  poss.  bird's,  obj.  bird.  Plural,  nom.  birds,  poss. 
birds',  obj.  birds. 

Brpose  is  a  verb,  a  word  tliat  signifies  to  be — neuter,  it  express- 
fs  neither  action  nor  passion,  but  a  state  of  being — third  peison, 
plural  number,  l)ecause  the  nominative  "birds"  is  with  which  it 
agrees,  agreeably  to  R(;le  4.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nomi- 
mitire  in  number  and  person. 

Declined — 1.  pers  sing.  I  repose,  2.  pers.  thou  reposcst,  3. 
pers.  he  re|K3ses,  or  the  bird  reposes.  Plur.  1.  pers.  we  repose, 
2.  pers.  ye  or  you  repose,  3.  pers.  they  rejwse,  or  birds  r«?}X)se. 


54  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

Now  parse  those  nouns  and  neuter  verbs  that  are  distinguished 
by  italics,  in  the  following 

EXERCISES  IN   PARSING. 

The  hook  lies  on  the  desk — The  cloak  hangs  on  the  wall — 
Man^s  days  are  few — CatJwior^s  warriors  shep  in  death — Caltho 
reposes  in  the  narrow  house — Jocund  day  stands  tiptoe  on  the 
nriisty  mountain  tops.  The  sunbeams  rest  on  the  grave  where  her 
beauty  sleeps. 

You  may  parse  these  and  the  preceding  exercises,  and  all  that 
foUow,  Jive  or  six  times  over,  if  you  please. 

OBJECTIVE  CASE.— ACTIVE.TRANSITIVE  VERBS. 

The  objective  case  expresses  the  object  of  an  action 

or  of  a  relation.     It  generally  follows  a  transitivp 

verb,  a  participle,  or  a  preposition. 

A  noun  is  in  the  objective  case  when  it  is  the  object  of  some- 
thing. At  present  I  shall  explain  this  case  only  as  the  object  of 
an  action ;  but  when  we  shall  have  advanced  as  far  as  to  tho 
pri  position,  I  will  also  illustrate  it  as  the  object  of  a  relation. 

An  active  verb  is  transitive  virhen  the  action  passes 
over  from  the  subject  or  nominative  to  an  object ;  as, 
Richard  strikes  John. 

Transitive  means  passing.  In  this  sentence  the  action  of  the 
verb  strikes  is  transitive,  because  ii  passes  over  from  the  nomina- 
tive Richard  to  the  object  John ;  and  you  know  that  the  noun 
Jo.m  is  in  the  objective  case,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  action 
expressed  by  the  active-transitive  verb  strikes.  This  matter  is 
very  plain.  For  example :  Gallileo  invented  the  telescope.  Now 
it  is  evident,  that  Gallileo  did  not  exert  his  powers  of  invention, 
without  some  object  in  view.  In  order  to  ascertain  that  object,  put 
the  question,  Gallileo  invented  what  ?  The  telescope.  Telescope, 
then,  is  the  real  object  of  the  action,  denoted  by  the  transitive 
verb  invented  ;  and,  therefore,  telescope  is  in  the  objective  case. 
If  I  say,  The  horse  kicks  the  servant — Carpenters  build  houses 
— Ossian  wrote  poems — Columbus  discovered  America  —  you 
readily  perceive,  that  the  \erhs  kicks,  build,  wrote,  and  discorrrcd, 
express  transitive  actions;  and  you  cannot  be  at  a  loss  to  tell 
which  nouns  are  in  the  objective  case  : — they  are  servant,  houses, 
poems,  and  America. 

The  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns  are  generally  known 
by  the  following  rule:  the  nominative  does  something;  the  ob- 
jective  lias  something  done  to  ii.     The  nominative  generally  corae» 


VERBS. THANSITIVB   AND    IMTRANSITIVE.  W 

l^efore  the  verb  ;  and  the  objective,  after  it.  When  I  say,  George 
struck  the  servant,  George  is  in  the  nominative,  and  servant  is  in 
the  objective  case;  but,  when  I  say,  Tito  servant  struck  George, 
servatU  is  in  the  nominative  case,  and  George  is  in  the  objective. 
Thus  you  perceive,  that  Case  means  the  different  state  or  situa- 
tion of  nouns  with  regard  to  other  words. 

It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  tell  the  case  of  a  noun.  I 
shall,  therefore,  take  up  this  subject  again,  when  I  come  to  give 
you  an  explanation  of  llic  participle  and  preposition. 

Besides  the  three  cases  already  explained,  nouns  are  sometimes 
n  the  nominative  case  indepemient^  s<^)metimos  in  the  nominative 
case  absolute,  sometimes  in  ap[)osition  in  tlie  same  case,  and 
s<jmotimes  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case  after  the  neuter 
to  bey  or  after  an  active-intransitive  or  passive  verb.  These  cases 
are  illustrated  in  Lecture  X.  and  in  the  21  and  22  rules  of  Syntax. 

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE  VERBS. 

An  active  verb  is  transitive,  when  the  action  ter- 
minates on  an  object :  but 

An  active  verb  is  intransitive,  when  the  action  does 
not  terminate  on  an  object ;  as,  John  walks. 

You  perceive  that  the  verb  walks,  in  this  example,  is  intransi- 
tive, because  the  action  does  not  pass  over  to  an  object ;  that  is, 
the  action  is  confined  to  the  agent  John.  The  following  sign  will 
generally  enable  you  to  distinguish  a  transitive  verb  from  an  m- 
transitive.  Any  verb  that  will  make  sense  with  the  words  a 
thing,  or  a  person,  after  it,  is  transitive.  Try  these  verbs  by  the 
sign,  love,  lie/p,  conquer,  reach,  subdue,  overcome.  Thus,  yon  can 
say,  I  love  a  person  or  thing — I  can  help  a  person  or  thing — and 
so  on.  Hence  you  know  that  these  verbs  are  transitive.  But 
an  intransitive  verb  will  not  make  sense  with  this  sign,  which  fact 
will  be  shown  by  the  following  examples:  smile, go,  come,  play, 
hark,  walk,  fly.  We  cannot  say,  if  we  mean  to  speak  English, 
I  smile  a  person  or  thing — I  go  a  person  or  thing  : — hence  you  per- 
ceive tliat  those  verbs  are  not  transitive,  but  intransitive. 

If  you  reflect  upon  these  examples  for  a  few  moments,  you  will 
have  a  clear  conception  of  the  nature  of  transitive  and  intransi- 
tive verbs.  Before  I  close  this  subject,  however,  it  is  necessary 
farllierlo  remark,  that  some  trarjsitiveand  intransitive  verbs  express 
what  is  called  a  mental  or  moral  action  ;  an<l  others,  a  corporeal 
or  phf/stcal  &cUnn.  Verbs  expressinir  the  ditferent  affections  or 
operations  of  the  mind,  denote  moml  actions ;  as,  Brutus  loved 


M  EITMOLOGY   AND    SfYNTAX. 

his  country  ;  James  hates  vice ;  We  believe  the  tale  : — to  repent; 
to  relent,  to  think,  to  rejlect,  to  mourn,  to  muse.  Those  ex}>ressing 
the  actions  produced  by  matter,  denote  physical  actions ;  as,  The 
dog  hears  the  bell ;  Virgil  wrote  the  jEnead  ;  Columbus  discover- 
ed  America ; — to  see,  to  Jeel,  to  taste,  to  smell,  to  run,  to  talk,  iojly, 
jQ  strike.  In  the  sentence,  Charles  resembles  his  father,  the  verb 
resembles  does  not  appear  to  express  any  action  at  all ;  yet  the 
construction  of  the  sentence,  and  the  office  Avhich  the  verb  per- 
forms, are  such,  that  we  are  obliged  to  parse  it  as  an  active-tran- 
sitive  verb,  governing  the  noun  father  in  the  objective  case. 
This  you  may  easily  reconcile  in  your  mind,  by  reflecting,  that 
the  verb  has  a  direct  reference  to  its  object.  The  following  verbs 
are  of  this  character :  Have,  own,  retain  ;  as,  I  have  a  book. 

Active  intransitive  verbs  are  frequently  made  transitive.  When 
I  say.  The  birds  fiy,  the  verb  fly  is  intransitive  ^  but  when  I  say, 
The  boy  flies  the  kite,  the  verb  fly  is  transitive,  and  governs  the 
noun  kite  in  the  objective  case.  Almost  any  active  intransitive 
verb,  and  sometimes  even  neuter  verbs,  are  used  as  transitive. 
The  horse  walks  rapidly  ;  The  boy  nins  swiftly ;  My  friend  lives 
well ;  The  man  died  of  a  fever.  In  all  these  examples  the  verbs 
are  mtransitive ;  in  the  following  they  are  transitive  :  The  man 
walks  his  horse ;  The  boy  rail  a  race ;  My  friend  lives  a  holy 
life  ;  Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

The  foregoing  development  of  the  character  of  verbs,  is  deem- 
ed sufficiently  critical  for  practical  purposes  ;  but  if  we  dip  a 
little  deeper  into  the  verbal  fountain,  we  shall  discover  qualities 
which  do  not  appear  on  its  surface.  If  we  throw  aside  the  veil 
which  art  has  drawn  over  the  real  structure  of  speech,  we  shall 
find,  that  almost  every  verb  has  either  a  personal  t»r  a  verbal  ob- 
ject, expressed  or  implied.  Verbal  objects,  which  are  the  eflfects 
or  productions  resulting  from  the  actions,  being  necessarily  im- 
plied, are  seldom  expressed. 

The  fire  burns.  If  the  fire  burns,  it  must  burn  wood,  coal,  taJ. 
low,  or  some  other  combustible  substance.  The  man  laughs. 
liaughs  what  ?  Laughs  laughter  or  laugh.  They  walk ;  thai 
is.  They  walk  or  take  walks.  Rivers  flow  (move  or  roll  them- 
selves  or  their  waters)  into  the  ocean. 

"  I  sing  the  shady  regions  of  the  west." 

"  And  smile  the  wrinkles  from  the  brow  f»r  age." 

The  child  wept  itself  sick  ;  and  then,  by  taking  (or  sleeping)  a 

snort  nap,  it  slept  itself  quiet  and  well  again.     "  lie  will  soon  sleep 

his  everlasting  sleep  ;"  that  is,  "  He  will  sleep  the  sleep  of  death." 

Thinkers  think  thoughts  ;  Talkers  talk  or  employ  words,  talk. 


NOUKS  AND   VERBS. — PARSING.  O. 

Of  sjirrchfs  ;  Tlie  rain  rains  rain.  "  Upon  Sodom  and  Gomorrah 
the  Lord  ruined  Jire  and  brimstone. ^^  "I  must  fio  tlie  whole 
Uniith.^^     "  I  shall  soon  go  lJ»e  way  of  all  the  earth." 

Now  please  to  turn  back  again,  and  peruse  this  lecture  attenU 
ively  ;  after  which  you  may  parse,  systematically,  the  following 
exercises  containing  nouns  in  the  three  cases,  and  active  trim- 
•ilive  verbs. 

The  printer  jtrints  books. 

Prints  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  signifies  to  do — active,  it  express- 
es action — transitive,  the  action  passes  over  from  the  nominative 
"printer "to  the  object  "books" — third  pers.  sing.  numb,  be- 
cause the  nominative  printer  is  with  which  it  agrees. 

Rule  4.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in  number 
and  person. 

Declined — 1.  pers.  sing.  I  print,  2.  pers.  thou  printest,  3.  pers. 
he  prints,  or  the  printer  prints,  and  so  on. 

Books  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  thing — common,  the  name  of  a 
sort  of  things, — neut.  gend.  it  denotes  a  thing  without  sex — third 
pers.  spoken  of — plur.  num.  it  implies  more  than  one — and  in  the 
objective  case,  it  is  the  object  of  the  action,  expressed  by  the  ac- 
live-transitive  verb  "  prints,  "  and  is  governed  by  it  according  to 

Rule  20.  Active-transitive  verbs  govern  tfie  objective  case. 

The  noun  books  is  thus  declined — Sing.  nom.  b<x)k,  poss.  book's, 
obj.  b(X)k — Plur.  nom.  books,  poss.  books',  obj.  books. 

Rule  20.  Transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case;  that  is, 
they  require  the  noun  or  pronoun  following  them  to  be  in  that 
case  ;  and  this  requisition  is  government.  Pronouns  have  a  par- 
ticular/orm  to  suit  each  case  ;  but  nouns  have  not.  We  cannot 
say.  She  struck  he  ;  I  gave  the  book  to  they.  Why  not  ?  Be- 
cause the  genius  of  our  language  requires  the  pronoun  following 
a  transitive  verb  or  preposition  (to  is  a  preposition)  to  assume  that 
form  which  we  call  Uie  objective  form  or  case.  Accordingly,  the 
construction  should  be.  She  struck  him  ;  I  gave  the  book  to  them, 
— Read,  again,  the  illustration  of  "government"  on  page  52. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 


Nom.  case. 

Trans,  verb. 

Poss.  case. 

Obj.  case. 

Julius 

prints 

childrens' 

primers. 

Harriet 

makes 

ladies' 

bonnets. 

The  servant 

beats 

the  man's 

horse. 

Tiie  horse 

kicks 

the  servant's 

master. 

The  bov 

struck 

that  man's 

child. 

The  child 

lost 

those  boys' 

ball. 

The  tempest 

sunk 

those  merchants'vessels. 

68 


ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 


Nojji.  case. 

Trans,  verb. 

Poss.  case. 

Ohj.  case* 

The  gale 

sweeps 

the  mountain's 

brow. 

Pope 

translated 

Homer's 

Illiad. 

Cicero 

procured 

Milo's 

release. 

Alexander 

conquered 

Darius' 

army. 

Perry 

met 

the  enemy's 

fleet. 

Washington 

obtained 

his  country's 

freedom. 

Note  I.     The  words  the,  that,  those,  and  his,  you  need  not  parse. 
2.  A  noun  in  the  possessive  case, -is  sometimes  governed  by  a  ftoun  under 
stood ;  as,  Julia's  lesson  is  longer  tlian  John's  [lesson.] 

As  you  have  been  analyzing  nouns  in  their  three  cases,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  present,  in  the  next  place,  the  declension  oj 
nouns,  for  you  must  decline  every  noun  you  parse.  Declenmon 
means  putting  a  noun  through  the  different  cases :  and  you  will 
notice,  that  the  possessive  case  varies  from  the  nominative  in  its 
termination,  or  ending,  but  the  ohjeciive  case  ends  like  the  nom- 
inative. The  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns,  must, 
therefore,  be  ascertained  by  their  situation  in  the  sentence,  or  by 
considering  the  office  they  perform. 

DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

SING.         PLUR.  SING.         PLUR. 

Norn.      king        kings  Nom.      man         men 

Poss.      king's     kings'  Poss.      man's      men's 

Obj.        king.      kings.  Obj.        man.        men 

Now,  if  you  have  parsed  every  word  in  the  preceding  exam- 
ples, (except  the,  that,  those,  and  hh,)  you  may  proceed  with  me 
and  parse  the  examples  in  the  following  exercises,  in  which  are 
presented  nouns  and  active-intransitive  verbs. 
"  My  Jlock  increases  yearly." 
Flock  is  a  noun,  a  name  denoting  animals — a  noun  of  multi- 
tude, it  signifies  many  in  one  collective  body — masculine  and 
feminine  gender,  denoting  both  sexes — third  person,  spoken  of — 
singular  number,  it  denotes  but  one  flock — and  in  the  nominative 
case,  it  is  the  active  agent  of  the  verb  "  increase?,"  and  governs 
it,  according  to  Rule  3.  The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb, 
(Decline  it.) 

Increases  'ma  a  verb,  a  word  that  signifies  to  do — active,  it  ex- 
presses  action — intransitive,  the  action  does  not  pass  over  to  an 
object — of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  because  its  nomi- 
native  "  flock  "  conveys  unity  of  idea ;  and  it  agrees  with  "  flock  " 
agreeably  to 

Rule  10.  A  noun  of  multitude  conveying  unity  of  idea,  mu^i 
have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the  singular. 


NOUI>IS    AltD    VERBS. PARSlNa.  59 

"  Tlie  divided  multitude  hastily  disperse.^* 

Multitude  is  a  noun,  a  name  that  denotes  persons — a  collective 
noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  it  signifies  many — masculine  and 
feminine  gender,  it  implies  both  sexes — third  person,  spoken  of — 
singular  number,  it  represents  but  one  multitude,  or  collective 
body;  (but  in  another  sense,  it  is  plural,  as  it  conveys  plurality 
of  idea,  and,  also,  implies  more  individuals  than  one  ;)— and  in 
the  nominative  case,  it  is  the  actor  and  subject  of  the  verb  "  dis- 
perse," which  it  governs,  according. to  Rule  3.  The  noni.  case 
governs  the  verb. — Declined. — Sing.  nom.  multitude,  poss.  multi- 
tude's, obj.  multitude — ^Plur.  nom.  multitudes,  poss.  multitudes', 
obj.  multitudes. 

Disperse  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  signifies  to  do — active,  it  ex- 
presses action — intransitive,  the  action  does^not  terminate  on  an 
object — third  person,  plural  number,  because  its  nominative  "  mul- 
titude" conveys  plurality  of  idea ;  and  it  agrees  with  "  multi- 
tude" agreeably  to 

RirLR  11.  A  noun  of  multitude  conveying  plurality  of  idea, 
viust  have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  Uie  plural. 

Rules  10,  and  11,  rest  on  a  sandy  foundation.  They  appear 
not  to  be  based  on  the  principles  of  the  language  ;  and,  therefore, 
it  might,  perhaps,  be  better  to  reject  than  to  retain  them.  Their 
application  is  quite  limited.  In  many  instances,  they  will  not 
apply  to  nouns  of  multitude.  The  existence  of  such  a  thing  as 
"  unity  or  plurality  of  idea,"  as  applicable  to  nouns  of  this  class, 
is  doubtful.  It  is  just  as  correct  to  say,  "The  meeting  teas  di 
vided  in  its  sentiments,"  as  to  say,  "  The  meeting  were  divided  in 
their  sentiments."  Both  are  equally  supported  by  the  genius  of 
the  language,  and  by  the  power  of  custom.  It  is  correct  to  say, 
either  that,  "The  fleet  were  dispersed  ;'*  "  The  council  were  unan- 
imous;" "The  council  were  divided;"  or  that,  "  The  /?er/ 7/?<w 
dispersed;"  "The  council  was  unanimous;"  "The  council  was 
divided."  But,  perhaps  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  in  some  in- 
stances, custom  has  decided  in  favor  of  a  singular,  and  in  others, 
of  a  plural  construction,  connected  with  words  of  this  class.  Foi 
example  ;  custom  gives  a  preference  to  the  constructions,  "  My 
people  do  not  consider;"  "  The  peasantry  go  barefoot;"  "The 
flock  is  his  object ;"  instead  of,  "  My  people  doth  not  consider  ;'* 
"  The  peasantry  goes  barefoot ;"  "  The  flock  are  his  object."  In 
instances  like  these,  the  application  of  the  foregoing  rules  may  be 
of  some  use ;  but  the  constructions  in  which  they  do  not  apply, 
are  probably  more  numerous  than  tliose  in  which  they  do. 


90  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 


Nam.  case. 

Iiitran.  verb. 

Nom.  case. 

Iiitran.  verb. 

Men 

labor. 

The  sun 

sets. 

Armies 

inarch. 

The  moon 

rises. 

Vessels 

sail . 

The  stars 

twinkle. 

Birds 

fly. 

The  rain 

descends. 

Clouds 

move. 

The  river 

flows. 

jNIultitudes 

perish. 

The  nation 

mourns. 

Your  improvement  in  grammar  depends,  not  on  the  number  of 
words  which  you  parse,  but  on  the  attention  which  you  give  the 
subject.      You  may  parse  the  same  exercises  several  times  over. 

For  the  gratification  of  those  who  prefer  it,  I  here  present  an- 
other 

DIVISION  OF  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  of  two  kinds,  transitive  and  intransitive. 

A  verb  is  transitive  when  the  action  affects  an  object;  as, 
"Earthquakes  rock  kingdoms;  thrones  and  palaces  are  shaken 
down ;  and  potentates,  princes,  and  subjects,  are  buried  in  one 
common  grave." 

The  nominative  to  a  passive  verb,  is  the  object,  but  not  the  agent,  of  tlie 
action. 

A  verb  is  intransitive  when  it  has  no  object ;  as,  "  The  waters 
came  upon  me ;"  "  I  awi  he  who  loas,  and  is^  and  is  to  come.'' 

As  an  exercise  on  what  you  have  been  studying,  I  will  now 
put  to  you  a  few  questions,  all  of  which  you  ought  to  be  able  to 
answer  before  you  proceed  any  farther. 

QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN  PARSING. 

With  what  two  general  divisions  of  grammar  does  the  secorrf 
lecture  begin  ?-^^0f  what  does  Etymology  treat  ? — Of  what  does. 
Syntax  treat  ? — On  what  is  based  the  true  principle  of  classifica- 
tion ? — How  do  you  ascertain  the  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word 
belongs  ? — What  is  meant  by  its  manner  of  meaning  ? — Name  the 
ten  parts  of  speech. — Which  of  these  are  considered  the  most 
important  ? — By  what  sign  may  a  noun  be  distinguished  ? — How 
many  kinds  of  nouns  are  there  ? — What  belong  to  nouns  ? — Wlia' 
is  gender  ?-^-How  many  genders  have  nouns  ? — What  is  per 
son  ? — How  many  persons  have  nouns  ?— What  is  number  ?— 
How  many  numbers  have  nouns  ? — What  is  case  ? — ^How  many 
cases  have  nouns  ? — Does  case  consist  in  the  inflections  o*  a 
noun  ? — How  many  kinds  of  verbs  are  there  ? — By  what  sign 
may  a  verb  be  known  ? — What  belong  to  verbs  ? — What  is  s-'n- 
thesis  ?— What  is  analysis  ?— What  is  parsing  ? — Repeat  the  or 't  r 


NOUNS  AND  VERBS. — PARSING.  61 

of  parsing  the  noun. — Repeat  tljc  order  of  parsing  the  verb. — 
What  rule  do  you  apply  in  parsing  a  noun  in  the  jwssessive 
case  ? — What  rulo,  in  parsing  a  noun  in  the  nouu'native  case  ? — 
What  rule  applies  in  parsing  a  verb  ? — What  is  meant  by  gov- 
ernment ? — Explain  rules  3,  4,  and  12. — By  what  rule  are  the 
nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns  known  ? — By  what  sign 
can  you  distinguish  a  transitive  from  an  intransitive  verb  ? — Do 
transitive  verbs  ever  axpress  a  moral  action  ? — Are  intransitive  and 
neuter  verbs  ever  used  as  transitive? — Give  some  examples  of 
transitive  verbs  with  personal  and  verbal  objects. — What  rule  do 
you  apply  in  parsmg  a  noun  in  the  objective  case  ? — Explain  rule 
20. — In  parsing  a  verb  agreeing  with  a  noun  of  multitude  con- 
veying plurality  of  idea,  what  rule  do  you  apply  ? 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  NOTES. 

Wliether  the  learner  be  required  to  answer  tlie  fulloMring  questions,  or  not, 
ifl,  of  course,  left  ditcrctionary  with  the  teacher.  The  author  takes  the  lib- 
erty to  suggest  the  expediency  of  no/,  generally,  enforcing  such  a  requisition, 
«n/t7  the  pupil  goe$  through  the  book  a  second  time. 

Name  some  participial  nouns. — Wliat  ai-e  abstract  nouns  7 — AVhat  is  the 
distinction  between  abstract  nouns  and  adjectives? — What  are  natural 
nouns  7 — Artificial  nouns? — What  is  tlie  (li.stiiirtion  between  TTja/fn"/?/  and 
immaterial  nouns  7 — Are  nouns  ever  of  the  masculine  and  feminine  gender  7 — 
Give  examples. — When  are  noiuis,  naturally  neuter,  converted  into  the  mas- 
culine or  feminine  gender  ? — Give  examples. — Speak  some  nouns  that  aro 
always  in  the  singular  number. — Some  that  are  always  plural. — Speak  som« 
that  aro  in  the  same  form  in  both  ntimhors. — Name  all  the  various  ways  of 
fonning  the  plunil  number  of  nouns. — Of  what  number  are  the  nouns  news, 
means,  alms,  and  amends  ?' — Name  the  plurals  to  the  following  compound 
nuuiis,  handful,  cupful,  spoonful,  brother-in-laic,  court-martial. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  NOTES. 
What  has  usually  been  the  object  of  philosophical  investigations  of  lan- 
guage ?  (page  32.)— *-Do  the  syntactical  dei)endance8  and  connexions  of  words 
depend  on  their  original  Import  ?-:-l8  the  power  of  association  and  custom 
efficient  in  changing  the  radical  meaning  or  some  words? — Have  wonls  in- 
trinsically a  si;:nification  of  their  own;  or  is  their  meaning  inferential ;  i.  e. 
surli  vin.  cuntom  Ij.is  assii^iied  to  them  7  (pago  38.) — On  what/af/  is  b.xsed  the 
tnie,  philosophical  principle  of  classification  ? — Define  ])hilosophical  gnun- 
mar. — Which  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  part  of  speech  7 — How  were  the 
others  furmetl  from  that  ? — How  many  parts  of  speech  may  be  recognised  in 
a  scientific  development  and  arrangement  of  the  princiiHes  of  our  language?— 
Name  them. — What  testimony  have  wo  that  many  things  do  not  act  ?  (|>ago 
43.) — Repeat  «oinc  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of,  and  against,  the  principle 
which  regards  all  verbs  as  active. — In  what  m^xnls  are  verbs  u.sed  in  their 
noun-stale  f  (page  48.) — Give  exam])les. — What  is  said  of  the  terminations, 
tst,  etkf  t,  and  en,  and  of  the  wonls  to  and  do  ? 

REMARKS  ON  VERBS  AND  NOUNS. 
Yon  have  already  been  infonned.  that  verbs  are  the  most  important  part 
of  speech  in  our  language ;  and  to  convince  you  of  their  importance,  I  now 
U'W  you,  that  yoa  canAot  express  a  thought,  or  communicate  an  idea,  withoat 

6 


52  ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

makiivg  use  of  a  verb,  either  expressed  or  implied  Verbs  express,  not  only 
Ike  state  or  manner  of  being,  but,  likewise,  all  the  different  actions  and  movC' 
ments  of  all  creatures  and  things,  whether  animate  or  inanimate.  As  yet  I  havo 
given  you  only  a  partial  descriptiun  of  this  sort  of  words ;  but  when  you  are 
better  prepared  to  comprehend  the  subject,  I  will  explain  all  their  properties, 
and  show  you  the  proper  manner  of  usinir  them 

A  word  that  is  generally  a  noun,  sometimes  becomes  a  verb  ;  and  a  verb 
is  frequently  used  as  a  noun.  These  changes  depend  on  the  sense  which  the 
word  conveys  ;  or,  rather,  on  the  office  it  performs  in  the  sentence  ;  that  is, 
the  manner  in*which  it  is  applied  to  things.  For  instance  ;  glory  is  genei-ally 
a  noun  ;  as,  "  The  glory  of  God's  throne."  But  if*l  say,  I  glory  in  religion; 
or.  He  glories  in  wickedness,  the  word  glo-ry  becomes  a  verb.  The  love  of 
man  is  inconstant.  In  this  sentence,  love  is  a  noun  ;  in  the  next,  it  is  a  verb  : 
They  love  virtue.  He  walks  swiftly ;  Scavengers  sweep  the  streets ;  The 
ship  sails  well.  In  these  phrases,  the  words  walks,  sweep,  and  sails,  are 
verbs ;  in  the  following  they  are  nouns :  Those  are  pleasant  walks ;  He  takes 
a  broad  sweep ;  The  ship  lowered  her  sails. 

Thus  you  see,  it  is  impossible  for  you  to  become  a  grammarian 
without  exercising  your  judgment.     If  you-have  sufficient  reso- 
lution to  do  this,  you  will,  in  a  short  time,  perfectly  understand 
the  nature  and  office  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  their  vari- 
ous properties  and  relations,  and  the  rules  of  syntax  that  apply 
to  them  ;  and,  in  a  few  weeks,  be  able  to  speak  and  write  accu 
rately.     But  you  must  not  take  things  for  granted,  without  ex 
amining  their  propriety  and  correctness.     No.     You  are  not  a 
mere  automaton,  or  boy-machine  ;  but  a  rational  being.     You  ought 
therefore,  to  think  methodically,  to  reason  soundly,  and  to  investi 
gate  every  principle    critically.       Don't  be  afraid  to  think  foi 
yourself.     You  know  not  the  high  destiny  that  awaits  you.     You 
know  not  the  height  to  which  you  may  soar  in  the  scale  of  intel 
lectual  existence.     Go  on,  then,  boldly,  and  with  unyielding  per 
severance  ;  and  if  you  do  not  gain  admittance  into  the  temple  of 
fame,  strive,  at  all  hazards,  to  drink  of  the  fountain  which  gur- 
gles from  its  base. 

EXERCISES   IN   FALSE   SYNTAX. 

Note  1,  to  Rule  12.  A  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  should 
always  be  distinguished  by  the  apostrophe,  or  mark  of  elision ; 
as,  The  nation's  glory. 

That  girls  book  is  cleaner  than  those  boys  books. 

Not  correct,  because  the  nouns  girls  and  boys  are  both  in  the  possessiv 
case,  and,  therefore,  require  the  apostrophe,  by  which  they  should  be  dis- 
tinguished; l\i\is,  "  girVs,  boys', ^^  according  to  the  preceding  Note.     [Re- 
peat tlie  note.] 

Thy  ancestors  virtue  is  not  thine. 

If  the  writer  of  this  sentence  meant  one  ancestor,  he  should  have  inserted 
the  apostrophe  after  r,  thus,  "ancestor's;''  if  more  than  one.  after  s,  thus, 


NOtmS  AND  YBRBS. — PALSB   SYNTAX.  68 

"  nneeMfon'  virtue ;"  but,  by  neglocling  to  place  the  apostro|)he,  he  ha^  left 
bi.H  infunin;;  nnibiguoiis,  ami  we  caiiiiot  uttcertain  it.  Thix,  and  a  thousand 
other  iniHtakes  vou  will  often  nn*et  with,  deniouatrate  tlie  truth  of  my  d«>- 
claration,  namely,  that  "  without  the  knowledge  and  application  of  graminur 
rules,  you  will  often  speak  and  write  in  such  a  nnuuier  aa  not  to  be  vnder- 
$tcod.'  You  may  now  turn  l»ack  and  re-examine  the  "  nluHiration"  of  Rules 
S,  4,  and  12,  on  page  52,  and  then  cori-ect  the  following  examples  aboutyfue 
times  over. 

A  mothers  tenderness  and  a  fathers  care,  are  natures  gift's  for 
mans  advantage.  Wisdoms  precept's  form  the  good  mans  inte- 
rest and  happiness.  They  sutFer  for  conscience's  sake.  He  is 
reading  Cowpers  poems.     James  bought  Johnsons  Dictionary. 

Rule  4.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  number 
and  person. 

Those  boys  improves  rapidly.  The  men  labors  in  the  field. 
Nothing  delight  some  persons.  Thou  shuns  the  light.  He  dare 
not  do  it.     Tiiey  reads  well. 

I  know  you  can  con-ect  these  sentencea  without  a  nile,  for  they  all  have  a 
harsh  soimd,  which  offends  the  ear.  I  wish  you,  however,  to  adopt  the  habit 
of  c«)rn?cthig  errors  by  applying  niles;  for,  by-and-by,  you  will  meet  with 
errors  in  c«>mposition  which  you  cannot  correct,  if  you  are  ignorant  of  the 
application  of  gnimmar  rules. 

Now  let  us  clearly  understand  this  4th  Rule.  R«»c"llprl,  it  applied  to  the 
verh,  and  not  to  the  noun ;  therefiire,  in  the<H!  examples  the  verb  is  ungnun- 
matical.  The  noun  f/ot/g,  in  the  first  soutence,  is  of  the  third  person  p/nrai, 
and  the  verb  improves  is  of  the  third  person  nnintlar ;  therefore.  Rule  4th  is 
violated,  because  the  verb  does  not  agree  with  its  nominative  in  numher.  It 
should  be,  *'  boys  imnrnve."  The  verb  wouM  then  be  plural,  and  agree  with 
its  nominative  accnromg  to  the  Rule.  In  the  fourth  sentence,  the  verb  does 
not  agree  in  perton  with  ita  nominative.  Thon  is  of  the  second  person,  ami 
shun*  is  of  the  Ihird.  It  should  be,  "  thou  shnnnesl,"  Sec.  You  uiay  correct 
the  oilier  sentences,  and,  likewise,  the  following  exercises  in 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  chann  the  eye.  The  number  of 
inhabitants  of  the  United  States  exceed  nine  millions.  Nothing 
out  vain  and  foolish  pursuits  delight  some  persons. 

In  vain  our  (locks  and  fields  increase  our  store, 
When  our  abundance  make  us  wish  for  more. 

While  ever  and  anon,  there  falls 
Huge  heaps  of  hoary,  moulder'd  walls. 


154  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 


LECTURE  IIL 


OF  ARTICLES. 

An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit 
their  signification ;  as,  a  man,  the  woman. 

There  are  only  two  articles,  a  or  an,  and  the.  A 
or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article.  The  is  called 
the  definite  article. 

The  indefinite  article  limits  the  noun  to  one  of  a 
kind,  but  to  no  particular  one ;  as,  a  house. 

The  definite  article  generally  limits  the  noun  to  a 
particular  object,  or  collection  of  objects;  as,  the 
house,  the  men. 

The  small  claims  of  the  article  to  a  separate  rank  as  a  distinct 
part  of  speech,  ought  not  to  be  admitted  in  a  scientific  classifica- 
tion of  words.  A  and  the^  this  and  that,  ten,  few,  and  fourth, 
and  many  other  words,  are  used  to  restrict,  vary,  or  define  the 
signification  of  the  nouns  to  which  they  are  joined.  They  might, 
therefore,  with  propriety,  be  ranked  under  the  general  head  of 
Restrictives,  Indexes,  or  Defining  Adjectives,  But,  as  there  is  a 
marked  distinction  in  their  particular  meaning  and  application, 
each  class  requires  a  separate  explanation.  Hence,  no  practical 
advantage  would  be  gained,  by  rejecting  their  established  classifi- 
cation, as  articles,  numerals,  and  demonstratives,  and  by  giving 
them  neto  names.  The  character  and  application  o^  a  and  the 
can  be  learned  as  sbon  when  they  are  styled  articles,  as  when 
they  are  denominated  specifying  or  defining  adjectives. 

The  his'ory  of  this  part  of  speech  is  very  brief.  As  there  are 
but  two  articles,  a  or  an  and  the,  you  will  know  them  wherever 
they  occur. 

A  noun  used  without  an  article,  or  any  other  restrictive,  is 
taken  in  its  general  sense;  as,  ^^  Fruit  is  abundant;"  "  Gold  is 
heavy;"  "Man  is  born  to  trouble."  Here  we  mean,  fruit  and 
^  gold  in  general ;  and  all  men,  or  mankind. 

When  we  wish  to  limit  the  meaning  of  the  noun  to  one  object, 
but  to  no  particular  one,  we  employ  a  or  aji.  If  I  say,  "  Give  me 
a  pen  ;"  "Bring  me  an  apple  ;"  you  are  at  liberty  to  fetch  any 
pen  or  any  apple  you  please.  A  or  an,  then,  is  indefinite,  be- 
cause it  leaves  the  meaning  of  the  noun  to  which  it  is  applied, 
as  far  as  regards  the  person  spoken  to,  vague,  or  indeterminate } 


OF  ABTirLES.  65 

that  is,  not  drfinitr.  Rut  when  reference  is  made  to  a  'partintlnr 
object,  we  employ  they  as,  "Give  me  the  pen;"  "Bring  me  the 
apple,  or  the  apples.*'  When  such  a  requisition  is  made,  you  are 
not  at  liberty  to  bring  any  pen  or  apple  you  please,  but  you  must 
fetch  the  particular  pen  or  apple  to  which  you  knowjjie  to  refer. 
The  is,  therefore,  called  the  definite  article. 

"i4  star  appears."  Here,  the  star  referred  to,  may  be  known 
a  particular  star,  definite,  and  distinguished  from  all  others,  in 
inr  mind  of  the  speaker  ;  but  to  the  hearer,  it  is  left,  among  the 
thousands  that  bedeck  the  vault  of  heaven,  undistinguished  and 
mdefinite.  But  when  the  star  has  oreviously  been  made  the  subject 
of  discourse,  it  becomes,  in  the  minds  of  both  speaker  and  hearer, 
a  definite  object,  and  he  says,  "  The  star  appears;"  that  -s,  that 
fxirlicnhir  star  about  which  we  were  discoursing. 

"  Solomon  built  a  temple."  Did  he  build  any  temple,  undeter 
mined  which  ?  No  ;  it  was  a  particular  temple,  pre-eminently  dis- 
tinguished from  all  others.  But  how  does  it  become  a  definite 
object  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer  ?  Certainly,  not  by  the  phrase,  "  a 
temple,"  which  indicates  any  temple,  leaving  it  altogether  unde- 
temiined  which  ;  but  supposing  the  person  addressed  was  totally 
unacquainted  with  the  fact  asserted,  and  it  becomes  to  him,  in  one 
respect  only,  a  definite  and  particular  temple,  by  means  of  the 
associated  words,  "Solomon  built ;"  that  is,  by  the  use  of  these 
words  in  connexion  witii  the  others,  the  hearer  gets  the  idea  of  a 
temple  distinguished  as  the  one  erected  by  Solomon.  If  the  speaker 
were  addressing  one  whom  he  supposed  to  be  unacquainted  wi^h 
the  fact  related,  he  might  make  the  temple  Referred  to  a  still  more 
definite  object  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer  by  a  farther  explanation 
of  it;  thus,  "Solomon  built  a  temple  on  mount  Zion ;  and  that 
was  the  temple  to  which  the  Jews  resorted  to  worship." 

"  The  lunatic,  the  poet,  and  the  lover, 
"Are  of  imagination  all  compact." 
"  The  horse  is  a  noble  animal ;"  "  The  dog  is  a  faithful  crea- 

PHILOSOPHICAL    NOTES. 
A,    AN,    THK. 

la  a  scientific  arrangement  of  grammatical  principles,  a  and  the  belong  to 
that  cla*«  of  atljective*  denominated  dr/tnifiret  or  rr$trictivet. 

A,  on,  an^,  or  one,  «  the  past  jwrticiple  of  annnad,  to  add,  tn  join.     It  de« 
notes  that  the  thing  to  which  it  \s  prefixed,  is  added,  united,  aned,  an-d,  oned, 
waned,)  or  made  one. 

The  and  that.  According  to  Home  Tooko,  the  is  the  imperative,  and  thnt^ 
the  pi»t  {larticiple,  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  thenn,  to  get,  tjike,  assume.  The 
and  that  had,  originally,  the  same  meaning.  The  difTerence  in  their  present 
i4)pIication,  is  a  mrxlcm  refinement.  Hence,  that,  as  well  n»  the,  was  for 
merly  ii»ed,  indifferently,  before  either  a  singular  or  a  plum!  Tioun. 

6* 


06  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX.  | 

ture  ;"  "  The  wind  blows ;"  "  The  wolves  were  howling  in  ihe^ 
woods."  In  these  examples,  we  do  not  refer  to  any  particular! 
lunatics,  poets,  lovers,  horses,  dogs,  winds,  wolves,  and  woods,  but  ■ 
we  refer  to  these  particular  classes  of  things,  in  contradistinction  \ 
to  other  objects  or  classes.  The  phrase,  "  Neither  the  one  nor  tlie  \ 
other,"  is  an  idiom  of  the  language.  \ 

Remarks. — This  method  of  elucidating  the  articles,  which  is  popular,  with  ; 
Blair,  Priestley-,  Lowth,  Johnson,  Harris,  Beattie,  Coote,  Murray,  and  many 
other  distinguished  philologists,  is  discarded  by  some  of  our  modern  writei-s.  ■ 
But,  by  proving  that  this  theory  is  exceptionable,  they  by  no  means  make  it  : 
appear,  that  it  ought,  therefore,  to  be  rejected.  < 

Exceptionable  or  not,  they  have  not  been  able  to  supply  its  place  with  ono  j 
that  is  more  convenient  in  practice.     Neither  have  they  adopted  one  less  ex-  > 
cep.ionable.     The  truth  is,  after  all  which  can  be  done  to  render  the  defini-  ' 
tions  and  rules  of  gi'ammar  comprehensive  and  accurate,  they  will  still  bo  ^ 
found,  when  critically  examined  by  men  of  learning  and  science,  more  or  less '' 
e:^oeptionable.      These  exceptions  and  imperfections  are  the  unavoidable 
consequence  of  the  imperfections  of  the  language.     Language,  as  well  as 
every  thing  else  of  human  invention,  will  always  be  imperfect.     Consequent- 
ly, a  perfect  system  of  grammatical  principles,  would  not  suit  it.     A  perfect 
grammar  will  not  be  produced,  until  some  perfect  being  writes  it  for  a  per- 
feci  language ;  and  a  perfect  language  will  not  be  consti-ucted,  until  some 
tuper-hutnan  agency  is  employed  in  its  production.     All  grammatical  princi- 
ples and  systems  which  are  not  perfect,  are  exceptionable.  \ 

NOTES.  j 

1.  The  article  is  omitted  before  nomis  implying  the  different  virtues,  vices,  j 
passions,  qualities,  sciences,  arts,  metals,  herbs,  &c. ;  as,  "  Modesty  is  becom-  ! 
mg  ;  Falsehood  is  odious ;   Grammar  is  useful,"  &c.  ; 

2.  The  article  is  not  prefixed  to  proper  nouns  ;  as,  Barron  killed  Decatnr;  \ 
except  by  way  of  eminence,  or  for  the  sake  of  distinguishing  a  particular 
family,  or  when  some  noun  is  understood  ;  as,  "  He  is  not  a  Franklin  ;  He  is  j 
a  Lee,  or  of  the  family  oi the  Lees;  We  sailed  down  the  (river)  Missouri."     i 

3.  An  adjective  is  freqiiently  placed  l^etween  the  article  and  the  noun  with  j 
which  the  article  agrees ;  as,  "  A  good  boy ;  an  industrious  man."  Some-  ' 
times  the  adjective  precedes  the  article ;  os,  "  As  great  a  man  as  Alexander;  ; 
Such  a  shame."  \ 

4.  In  referring  to  many  individuals,  when  we  wish  to  bring  each  separate-  j 
ly  under  consideration,  the  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  placed  between  • 
the  adjective  mnnv  and  a  singular  noun ;  as,  "  Where  many  a  rosebud  rears  j 
its  blushing  head  ;  '  "  Full  many  ajlower  is  born  to  blush  unseen."  \ 

5.  The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  applied  to  adverbs  in  the  cornpara-  \ 
tive  or  superlative  degree ;  as,  "  The  more  I  examine  it,  the  better  I  Uke  it ;  ' 
I  like  this  the  least  of  any." 

You  may  proceed  and  parse  the  following  articles,  when  you  , 

•hall  have  committed  this  \ 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING  \ 

The  order  of  parsing  an  Aiticle,  is — an  article,  i 
and  why  ? — definite  or  indefinite,  and  why  ? — with  \ 
what  noun  does  it  agree  ? — Rule.  ! 


ARTICLES. FARSINO.  67 

"  He  is  /Ac  son  of  a  king." 

The  is  an  article,  a  word  prefixed  to  a  noun  to  limit  its  signifi- 
cation—definite, it  limits  the  noun  to  a  particular  object — it  be- 
lon«^s  to  the  noun  "  son,"  according  to 

RcLn  2.  The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular 
or  plural  number  only. 

A  is  an  article,  a  word  placed  before  a  noun  to  limit  its  signi- 
fication— indefinite,  it  limits  the  noun  to  one  of  a  kind,  but  to  no 
particular  one — it  agrees  with  "king,"  agreeably  to 

Rule  1.  The  article  a  or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the  singular 
number. 

Note.  By  considering  the  original  meaning  of  this  article,  the  propriety 
of  Rule  1,  will  appear.  A  or  an,  (formerly  written  ane,)  being  equivalent  to 
onf,  any  one,  or  tome  one,  cannot  be  prefixed  to  nouns  in  the  plural  number. 
There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  this  rule.  A  is  placed  before  a  plural 
noun  when  any  of  the  following  adjectives  come  between  the  article  and  the 
noun  :  few,  great,  many,  dozen,  hundred,  thousand,  mUlion  ;  H&,  a  few  men,  a 
thousand  houses,  Jf-c. 

After  having  parsed  these  articles  several  times  over,  please  to 
read  this  third  lecture  three  times.  Then  turn  back,  and  ?xam 
inc  the  second  lecture  critically,  observing  to  parse  every  exam- 
ple according  to  the  directions  previou.sly  given,  which  will  pre- 
pare you  to  parse  systematically,  all  the  articles,  nouns,  and  verbs 
in  these  subsequent 

EXERCISES  IN   PARSING. 

A  bird  sings.  An  eagle  flies.  Mountains  stand.  The  multi- 
tude  pursue  pleasure.  The  reaper  reaps  the  farmer's  griin. 
Farmers  mow  the  grass.  Farmers'  boys  spread  the- hay.  Tiie 
clerk  sells  the  merchant's  goods.  An  ostrich  outruns  an  Arab's 
horse.  Cecrops  founded  Athens.  Gallileo  invented  the  teles- 
cope. James  Macpherson  translated  Ossian's  poems.'  Sir  Fran- 
cis Drake  circumnavigated  the  globe.  Doctor  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin invented  the  lightning-rod.  Washington  Irving  wrote  the 
Sketch-Book. 

I  will  now  oflTer  a  few  remarks  on  the  misapplication  of  the 
articles,  which,  with  the  exercise  of  your  own  discriminating 
powers,  will  enable  you  to  use  them  with  propriety.  But,  before 
you  proceed,  jlease  to  ariswer  the  following 

QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN   PARSING. 
How  many  articles  are  there  ? — In  what  sense  is  a  noun  takeji, 
when  it  has  no  article  to  limit  it  ? — Repeat  the  order  of  parsing 
an  article. — What  rule  applies  in  parsing  the  definite  article? — 
What  rule  in  parsing  tiio  indefiniU  i 


68  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

QUESTIO?IS  ON  THE  NOTES. 
Before  what  mmns  is  the  article  omitted  ? — Is  the  article  Ike  ever  a]>phed 
to  adverbs? — Give  examples. — What  is  the  meaning  uf  a  or  ^/t  ? — When  ia 
a  or  UH  placed  before  a  plural  nouu  ? — From  what  are  a,  the,  and  that  derived  ? 

EXERCISES  IN  FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Note  to  Rule  1.     An  is  used  before  a  vowel  or  silent  h,  and 
before  a  consonant  or  u  long,  and  also  before  the  word  one. 

It  is  not  only  disagreeable  to  the  ear,  but,  according  to  this  note,  improper 
lO  say,  a  api)le,  a  humble  suppliant,  an  hero,  an  university,  because  the  word 
apple  begins  with  a  vowel,  and  k  is  not  sounded  in  tha  word  humble,  for 
which  reasons  a  should  be  an  in  the  first  two  examples ;  but,  as  the  h  is 
sounded  \\\hero,\xn(}iX\\eu\ii\ini^\nnnivcrsihj,a  ought  to  be  prefixed  to  these 
words :  thus,  an  apple,  an  humble  suppliant :  a  hero,  a  imiversity.  You 
may  correct  the  following 

EXAMPLES. 

A  enemy,  a  inkstand,  a  hour,  an  hor.se,  an  herald,  an  heart, 
an  heathen,  an  union,  a  umbrella,  an  useful  book,  many  an  one. 
This  is  an  hard  saying.  They  met  with  an  heavy  loss.  He 
would  not  give  an  hat  for  an  horse. 

Note  1,  to  Rule  2.  The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted  : 
when  used  they  should  be  justly  applied,  according  to  tlieir  dis- 
tinct character;  as,  "  Gold  is  corrupting;  The  sea  is  grcew  ;  A 
lion  is  bold."  It  would  be  improper  to  say,  The  gold  is  corrupt- 
ing ;  Sea  is  green  ;  Lion  is  bold. 

The  grass  is  good  for  horses,  and  the  wheat  for  men.  Grass 
is  good  for  the  liorses,  and  wheat  for  the  men.  Grass  looks  well. 
Wheat  is  blighted. 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences,  we  are  not  speaking  of  any  particular  kind 
of  grass  or  wheat,  neither  do  we  wish  to  limit  the  meaning  to  any  particular 
crop  or  field  of  grass,  or  C|iiantity  of  wheat;  but  we  are  .^peaking  of  grass 
and  wheat  generally,  therefore  the  article  Ihr  should  bo  omitted.  In  the  se- 
cond sentence,  we  do  not  refer  to  any  definite  kind,  quality,  or  number  of 
horses  or  men;  but  to  liorse.s  and  men  generally;  that  is,  the  terms  are  here 
used  to  denote  irhole  species,  therefore,  the  article  should  boomiued,  and  the 
sentence  slioidd  read  thus,  •*  Grass  is  good  for  hoi-ses,  and  wheat  for  men." 

In  the  third  and  fourth  examples,  we  wish  to  limit  our  meaning  to  the 
crops  of  grass  and  icheal-  now  on  the  ground,  which,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  crops  heretofore  raised,  are  coiisidcrofl  a<?  r?(7r/ir?///7r  objects;  thereforo 
we  should  say,  "  The  grass  looks  well ;    The  wheat  is  blighted." 

Note  2.  When  a  noun  is  used  in  its  general  sense,  the  article 
should  be  omitted;  as,  ^^  Poetry  is  a  pleasing  art;"  ^^  Oranges 
grow  in  New  Orleans." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Corn  m  the  garden,  grows  well  ;  hut  corn  in  the  fielil,  does 
not.      How  docs  the  tobacco  sell?     The  tobacco  is  dear.     How 
do  you  like  the  study  of  tlie  grammar?     The  grammar  is  a 


OP  ADJECTIVE.S.  69 

pleasing  study.  A  candid  temper  is  projxjr  for  the  man.  World 
is  wide.  The  man  is  mortal.  And  I  persecuted  this  way  unto 
ihe  dea*h.  The  earth,  the  air,  the  fire,  and  the  water,  are  the 
Jour  elements  of  the  old  philosophers. 


LECTURE  IV. 
OF  ADJECTIVES. 


An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  to  express 
its  quality  or  kind,  or  to  restrict  its  meaning  ;  as,  a 
good  man,  a  bad  man,  at  free  man,  an  unfortunate  man, 
one  man,  forty  men. 

In  the  phrases,  a  good  apple,  a  had  apple,  a  large  apple,  a  small 
apple,  a  red  apple,  a  white  apple,  a  green  apple,  a  stceel  apple,  a 
sour  apple,  a  biller  apple,  a  round  ap|)le,  a  hard  apple,  a  soft 
apple,  a  mellow  apple,  a  fair  apple,  a  May  apple,  an  early  apple, 
a  late  apple,  a  winter  apple,  a  crab  apple,  a  thorn  apple,  a  well- 
tasted  apple,  an  ill-looking  apple,  a  water-cored  apple,  you  per- 
ceive that  all  those  words  in  i7«^'c5  are  adjectives,  because  each  ex- 
presses some  quality  or  property  of  the  noun  apple,  or  it  shows 
what  kiiul  of  an  apple  it  is  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

I'he  distinction  between  a  noun  and  an  adjective  is  very  clear. 
A  noun  is  the  name  of  a  thing  ;  but  an  adjective  denotes  simply 
the  quality  or  property  of  a  thing.  This  is  fne  cloth.  In  this 
example,  the  difference  between  the  word  denoting  the  thitig^  and 
that  denoting  the  quality  of  it,  is  easily  perceived.  You  certainly 
cannot  be  at  a  loss  to  know,  that  the  word  cloth  expresses  the 
name,  and  fne,  the  quality,  of  the  thing  ;  consequently  fne  must 
be  an  adjective.  If  I  say,  Fie  is  a  wise  man,  a  prudent  man,  a 
wicked  man,  or  an  ungrateful  man,  the  words  in  italics  arc  adjec- 

PHILOSOPHICAL    NOTES. 
ADKOUNS. 

Adnonn  or  Adjecfivf,  comes  from  the  Latin,  ad  and  jicio,  to  add  to. 

Adiioiins  are  a  claasof  wonls  addtxl  to  noiitis  to  vary  their  comprehenrion, 
or  to  determine  their  extensicm.  Those  which  effect  the  former  ohjnct,  are 
caMed  adjrclivea,  or  allribnteM  ;  and  those  which  effect  the  latter,  re$lrictive$. 
It  is  not,  in  all  caM>s,  easy  to  detenniiie  to  which  of  these  classes  an  adnoiin 
should  Ih?  referred.  Words  which  exjiress  simply  the  7M^/i/t>«  of  nouns,  aro 
^jectives  ;  and  such  as  denote  tiieir  tituaiion  or  number,  are  restrictive*. 

Adjoctivea  were  originally  nouns  or  verlM. 


70  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

tives,  because  each  expresses  a  quality  of  the  noun  man.  And,  i 
if  I  3ay,  He  is  a  tall  man,  a  short  man,  a  white  man,  a  black  man,  1 
or  a  persecuted  man,  the  words,  tall,  short,  white,  Uack,  and  per-  ; 
secuted,  are  also  adjectives,  because  they  tell  what  kijid  of  a  man  j 
he  is  of  whom  I  am  speaking,  or  they  attribute  to  him  some  par-  , 
ticular  property.  j 

Some  adjectives  restrict  or  limit  the  signification  of  the  nouns  ! 
to  which  they  are  joined,  and  are,  therefore,  sometimes  called  j 
definitives  ;  as,  one  era,  seven  ages,  the  first  man,  the  whole  mass,  . 
no  trouble,  those  men,  that  book,  all  regions.  j 

Other  adjectives  define  or  describe  nouns,  or  do  both  ;  as,  fine  { 
silk,  blue  paper,  a  heavy  shower,  pure  water,  green  mountains,  \ 
hland  breezes,  gurgling  rills,  glass  window,  window  glass,  beaver  " 
hats,  chip  bonnets,  blackberry  ridge,  Monroe  garden,  Juniata  iron,  j 
Cincinnati  steam-mill. 

Some  adjectives  are  secondary,  and  qualify  other  adjectives ;  i 
as,  pale  red  lining,  ^ark  blue  silk,  deep  sea  green  sash,  soft  iron  1 
blooms,  red  hot  iron  plate.  j 

You  will  frequently  find  the  adjective  placed  after  the  noun ;  \ 
as,  "Those  men  are  tall ;  A  lion  is  hold ;  The  weather  is  calm ;  \ 
The  tree  is  three  feet  thick.'' 

Should  you  ever  be  at  a  loss  to  distinguish  an  adjective  from  ' 
the  other  parts  of  speech,  the  following  sign  will  enable  you  to 
tell  it.  Any  word  that  will  make  sense  with  the  word  thing 
added,  or  with  any  other  noun  following  it,  is  an  adjective ;  as, 
a  high  thing,  a  low  thing,  a  hot  thing,  a  cold  thing,  an  unfinished 
thing,  a  new-fashioned  thing :— or,  a  pleasant  prospect,  a  long-de- 
serted dwelling,  an  American  soldier,  a  Greek  Testament.  Are 
these  words  adjectives,  distant,  yonder,  peaceful,  long-sided,  double- 
headed  ?  A  distant  object  or  thing,  yonder  hill,  SfC.  They  are. 
They  will  make  sense  with  a  noun  after  them. — Adjectives  some- 
Some  consider  the  adjective,  in  its  present  application,  exactly  equivalent 
to  a  noun  connected  to  another  noun  by  means  of  juxtaposition,  of  a  prepo- 
sition, or  of  a  corresponding  flexion.  "  A  golden  cup,"  say  they,  "  is  the  sfime 
as  a  gold  cup,  or  a  cup  of  goldy  But  this  principle  appears  to  be  excepticn- 
'able.  "  A  cup  of  gold,''''  may  mean  either  a  cnY>-full  of  gold,  or  a  cup  made 
of  gold.  "  An  oaken  cask,"  signifies  an  oak  cask,  or  a  cask  of  oak ;  i.  e.  a 
cLsk  made  of  oak ;  but  a  beer  cask,  and  a  cask  of  beer,  are  two  different 
things.     A  virtuous  son ;  a  son  of  virtue. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  adjective,  appears  to  consist  in  its 
both  naming  a  quality,  and  attributing  that  quality  to  some  object 

The  tenninations  en,  cd,  and  ig,  (our  modem  y,)  signifying  give,  add,  join, 
denote  that  the  names  of  qualities  to  which  they  are  postfixed,  are  to  be  at- 
tributed to  other  nouus  possessing  such  qualities .  wood-e»,  wood-y.  See 
page  37. 

Left  is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  leave.     Home  Tooke  defines  right 


ADJECTIVES.  -1 

limos  b«'cotnP  udverbs.  This  matter  will  be  explainrd  in  [noc- 
ture VI.  In  parsing;,  you  may  generally  knew  an  afljective  by 
its  qna/i  ft/in  IT  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

Most  words  ending  in  /w^  are  present  participles.  These  are 
Orquenlly  used  as  adjectives ;  therefore,  most  participles  will 
make  sense  with  the  addition  of  the  word  thing,  or  any  other 
noun,  after  them;  as,  a  pleasing  thing,  a  moving  spectacle,  moul- 
dering ruins. 

In  the  liatin  language,  and  many  others,  adjectives,  like  nouns, 
have  gender,  number,  and  case ;  but  in  the  English  language, 
they  have  neither  gender,  person,  number,  nor  case.  These 
properties  belong  to  creatures  and  Uiings,  and  not  to  their  quali- 
ties ;  therefore  gender,  person,  number,  and  case,  are  the  pro- 
perties of  nouiiSj  and  not  of  adjectives. 

Adjectives  are  varied  only  to  express  the  degrees 
of  comparison.  They  have  three  degrees  of  compari- 
son, the  Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

The  positive  degree  expresses  the  quality  of  an  ob- 
ject without  any  increase  or  diminution;  as,  good, 
wise,  great. 

The  comparative  degree  increases  or  lessens  the 
positive  in  signification;  as,  better,  wiser,  greater, 
less  v:ise, 

Tlie  superlative  degree  increases  or  lessens  the  posi- 
tive to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree ;  as,  best,  wisest, 
greatest,  least  wise. 

1o  be  that  which  ia  ordered  or  directed.  The  right  hand  is  that  which  your 
purr?,'  '  >Toni  direct  yon  to  use  in  preference  to  the  other.  And  when 
v»»n  it  in  preference,  the  other  is  the  leaved,  leaved,  or  Irff  hand  , 

1  e.  "  /nrleft.     "Theoneshallbetaken.andtheotherC/ffrtpe^Zj/^//." 

Orrn.  Forniurly  a  man's  oirn  v/an  what  he  worked  for,  ovm  being  a  paal 
participle  of  a  verb  signifying  to  vrork. 

liiMfrirftKeg.     Some  restrictivea,  in  modem  times,  are  applied  only  to  sin- 

gilar  nouns;  such  as  a  or  nn,  another,  one,  tki*,  that,  each,  every,  either 
thers,  only  to  phtral  nouns ;  as,  thene,  thoxe,  tiro,  three,  fete,  several,  all. 
But  most  restrictives,  like  adjectives,  are  applied  to  both  singular  and  pltiral 
nouns  :  JirU,  teeond,  lant,  fhe,  former. laftfr.  any.  n^trh.  name,  some,  which, what. 
Numerah.  All  nun  "  "  "  '!v  |>erfnnned  by  the 
finders;  for  the  numi  ■  extent  of  its  signifi- 
cation      VVn  is  the  pi. .  , , ,:     shut  in.     The  hands 

tyned,  lened,  c\o»vn\,  nr  shut  in,  signitied  ten;  for  there  numeration  closed. 
To  deuote  a  number  grettter  than  ten,  we  must  begin  aga*n,  cen  and  ont,  ten 
and  two.  «S:c. 


72  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX.  I 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  ' 

More  and  most  form  the  compai-ative  and  superlative  degrees  by  increasing 
the  positive ;  and  less  and  least,  by  diminishing  it. 

Comparison  by  increasing  the  positive.  i 


Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup. 

great, 

greater. 

greatest. 

wise, 

wiser, 

wisest. 

holy, 

more  holy, 

most  holy. 

frugal, 

more  frugal. 

most  frugal. 

Comparison  by  diminishing 

the  positive. 

Pos. 

Comp. 

Sup. 

wise, 

less  wise. 

least  wise. 

holy. 

less  holy. 

least  holy. 

frugal, 

less  frugal. 

least  frugal. 

\ 

NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES.  ^\ 

Words  used  in  counting,  are  called  numeral  adjec- 
tives of  the  cardinal  kind ;  as,  one,  two,  three,  four, 
twentji,  fifty,  &c. 

AVords  used  in  numbering,  are  called  numeral  ad- 
jectives of  the  ordinal  kind ;  as,  first,  second,  third _ 
fourth,  tiventieth,  fiftieth,  &c. 

Note.  The  words  many,  few,  and  several,  as  they  always  refer  to  an  in- 
definite number,  may  be  properly  ceJled  numeral  adjectives  of  the  indefinite 
kind. 

NOTES. 

1.  The  simple  word,  or  Positive,  becomes  the  Comparative  by  adding  r, 
or  er;  and  the  Positive  becomes  the  Superlative,  by  adding  st,  or  est,  to  the 
end  of  it;  as,  Pos.  wise,  Com.  wiser.  Sup.  -wisest;  rich,  richer,  richest;  bold, 
bolder,  boldest.  The  adverbs,  more  and  most,  less  and  least,  when  placed 
before  the  adjective,  have  the  same  effect ;  as,  Pos.  wise.  Com.  more  wise, 
Sup.  most  wise  ;  Pos.  wise.  Com.  less  wise.  Sup.  least  wise. 

Twain,  twa-in,  twa-ain,  twa-ane,  is  a  compound  of  two  (twa,  twae,  twee, 
twi,  two  or  dwo  or  duo)  and  one  (ane,  ain,  an.)  It  signifies  two  units  j'omed^ 
united,  aned,  or  oned.  Twenty  (twa-ane-ten)  signifies  two  tens  aned,  oned,  or- 
united.  Things  sepa'-ated  into  parcels  of  twenty  each,  are  called  scores^ 
Score  is  the  past  participle  of  shear,  to  separate.  \ 

The  Ordinals  are  formed  like  abstract  nouns  in  eth.  Fifth,  sixth,  or  tentk^<^ 
is  the  number  which,  fiv-eth,  six-etk,  ten-eth,  or  maik-eth  up  the  number ^©«,i 
six,  or  ten. 

Philosophical  writers  who  limit  our  acceptation  of  words  to  that  in  which' 
they  were  originally  employed,  and  suppose  that  all  the  complicated,  yet; 
often  definable,  associations  which  the  gradual  progress  of  language  and  in-i 
tellect  has  connected  with  words,  are  to  be  redticeJ  to  the  standard  of  our\ 


ADJECTIVES. — PARSINO.  7S  ^ 


entiuii;  iii  y ;  as,  happy,  lovely  ;  aud  iu  U  alter  a  luutc ;  afl,  able,  aiupie ;  and 
ditwy!(Tih!c5  nrrcnrrNi  on  tht*  In-t  syllnble ;  r",  fliscreot,  jjolilo ;  *ea«ily  admit 
of  Words  of  more  than 

..,  w.  .,  , c  1,)  u  Mingle  vowel,  the  con. 

•II  iij  comparative  and  superLitlve  degrees;  a«, 

r»M  r,  hnffi\if. 

i.    In  ,,.;'-.  ,.„(!  „f 

them;  most. 

.'.    '  ^>......^ ..;  >.  1  >  .  "-iuinon 

us  i»ettrr  ol'anaiogy,)  tliat 

ore  i-i,  "  (Jriod,  betfer,  best; 

bad,  wofoe,  wttrst;  liale,  lo«s,  ifuil;  much  (;r  many,  more,  most;  near, 
neanir,  neareKt  or  next ;  late,  later,  latest  or  last ;  old,  older  or  elder,  oldest 
or    '  '     "  ;"        '    .  '■    ■•    ■"'     -. 

I  .  and  many  others,  are  always  in  the  super- 

la'  .        ineftsing  a  quality  in  the  highest  deforce,  tuey 

carry  in  iluuiselvo*  a  tjupurialive  signification  :  ekief,  extreme,  perfect,  rigkif 
tcrt'uc^,  honrxf.  jnxt,  true,  eorrect,  nnrrre,  vatt,  immente,  ceaseless,  injinile,  end' 
Uss.uiir  '    '        ■  '  '•     •■    '  omnipotent,  all-icise,  eternal. 

7.  C  'ting  qualifies  arising  from 
thefigiiij  .  ,  i;  sy\c\\Vin,  wfU'formed,  frost 
bitten,  round,  square,  oblong,  circular,  miadrangular,  conical,  Sf-c. 

8.  The  ttTininatiou  i«A  added  to  adjectives,  expresses  a  slight  degree  of 
qu  "'  '.  the  comparative  ;  as,  black,  blackish;  salt,  saltish.  Fery,  pre- 
fix mparative,  expresses  a  degroe  of  quality,  but  not  always  a  su- 
pci ,.  jjiee. 

Read  this  Lecture  carefully,  particularly  the  Notes;  aftrr 
which  you  may  parse  the  following  adjectives  and  neuter  verb, 
and,  likewise,  Hhe  examples  that  follow.  If  you  cannot  repeat 
all  the  definitions  and  rules,  spread  the  Compendium  when  you 
parse.     But  before  you  proceed,  please  to  commit  the 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  an  Adjective,  is — an  adjec 
tive,  and  why  ? — compare  it — degree  of  comparison, 
and  why  ? — to  what  noun  does  it  belong  ? — Rule. 

forefafhers,  Hftpew  not  to  have  sufficiently  attended  to  tha  changes  vfhkh 
l},;^  oritwir.i..  Mf  i.varwiit;,,!.  'I'-tually  produces.  As  language  is  tmnsmitt<xl 
fr  .  '.  many  words  become  the  rcpr«"sontativo9  of 

ill  *  nnrrnmHy  n^<r(rT:'.fr'.'1 ;  nnrl  tlni';  th'^y  undergo 

\  T  meaning. 

V\  change  u« 

01  .w...i  ill  their  im- 

o<.  •».^.      Among   the 

id*    '  .'.ry,  becomes  only 

of  her.j!ivUu-y  iajportauco  ;  and  «omotiinc...  !)v  dogrecr.   it  loxes  olto'^Mh»»r  il« 

7 


T4  KTi'MOLOGk'  AiND  WYNTAX. 

Tha»  great  nation  was  once  powerful ;  but  now  tt  is  feeble. 

Great  is  an  adjective,  a  word  added  to  a  noun  to  express  its 
quality — pos.  great,  com.  greater,  sup.  greatest — it  is  in  the  pos- 
itive degree,  it  expresses  the  quality  of  an  object  without  any 
increase  or  diminution,  and  belongs  to  the  noun  "  nation,"  accord- 
ing to 

Rule  18.  Adjectives  belong  to,  and  qualify,  nouns  expressed  or 
understood. 

Was  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  signifies  to  be — neuter,  it  expresses 
neither  action  nor  passion,  but  being  or  a  state  of  being — third 
person  singular,  because  its  nominative  "  nation"  is  a  noun  of 
multitude  conveying  unity  of  idea — it  agrees  with  "nation," 
agreeably  to 

Rule  10.  A  noun  of  multitude  conveying  unity  of  idea,  may 
have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the  singular. 

Powerful  is  an  adjective  belonging  to  "  nation,"  according  to 
Rule  18.  Feeble  belongs  to  "  it,"  according  to  Note  1,  under  Rule 
18.  Is  is  a  neuter  verb  agreeing  with  "  it,"  agreeably  to  Rule  4. 
"  Bonaparte  entered  Russia  with  400,000  men." 

Four-hundred-thousand  is  a  numeral  adjective  of  the  cardinal 
kind,  it  is  a  word  used  in  counting,  and  belongs  to  the  noun  "  men," 
according  to  Note  2,  under  Rule  18.  Numeral  adjectives  belong 
to  nouns,  lohich  nouns  must  agree  in  number  with  their  adjectives. 

If,  in  parsing  the  following  examples,  you  find  any  words  about 
which  you  are  at  a  loss,  you  will  please  to  turn  back,  and  parse 
all  the  foregoing  examples  again.  This  course  will  enable  you 
to  proceed  without  any  difficulty. 

More  is  an  adverb.  Of  and  to  are  prepositions,  governing  the 
nouns  that  follow  them  in  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
A  benevolent  man  helps  indigent  beggars.  Studious  scholars 
learn  many  long  lessons.  Wealthy  merchants  own  large  ships. 
The  lioavy  ships  bear  large  burdens ;  the  lighter  ships  carry  less 
burdens.  Just  poets  use  figurative  language.  Ungrammatical 
expressions  offend  a  true  critic's  ear.  Weak  critics  magnify  tri- 
fling errors.     No  composition  is  perfect.     The  rabble  was  tumul 

connexion  witli  the  word,  giving  place  to  others  vf'iih.  which,  from  some  acci 
dental  causps,  it  lias  been  associated. 

Two  or  three  instances  will  illustrat©  the  truth  of  these  remarks.  In  an 
ancient  Knglish  version  of  the  New  Testament,  we  find  the  following  lau 
guago :  "I,  Paul,  a  rascal  of  Jesus  Christ,  imtc  you  Gentiles,"  &.c.  But 
who.  in  lliu  i)resent  acceptation  of  the  word,  won.d  dare  to  call  "  the  great 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles"  a  raaca/ 7  Rascal  formerly  meant  a  «erpa;i/:  one 
d«5voied  to  the  ill tarest  of  another ;  but  now  it  is  nearly  synonymous  with 


ttrfnis.     The  latcwashed  grass  looks  green.     Shady  trees  form  a 
delightful    arbor.     The  setting  sun   makes  a  beautiful  a[)poar- 
ann^  :  the  variegated  rainbow  appears  more  beautiful.     I'^pumi. 
u  I  .iu.^  was  the  greatest  of  the  Theban  generals;  Pelopidus  wa 
niM  to  Epaminondas. 

The  first  fleet  contained  three  hundred  men ;  the  second  con- 
tainrd  four  thousand.  The  earth  contains  one  thousand  million 
iii!<al>itants.  Many  a  cheering  ray  brightens  the  good  man'u 
pathway. 

Ni'Tr.     Like,  Worth.     The  adjective /tite  is  a  contraction  of  the  participle 

'.'■■        ■        '         'Hilly  has  the  preposition  ti»t/o  understood  after  it.     "  She  is 

-ther;"  "  They  ure  unlike  [/o]  him."     "  The  kingdom  of 

li -.  ^iLcned  or  made  tike']  unto  a  householder." 

The  unun  worth  has  altogetlier  dropped  ita  aMociated  words.     "  The  cloth 
i<»  vorfh  ten  dollars  a  yard ;"  that  is,  The  cloth  ha  of  the  worth  of  ton  dollars 
i.  nr  for  a,  one,  or  every  yard. 
nent  philologists  do  not  admit  the  propriety  of  supplying  an  ellip- 

t.. worth,  ere,  but,  except,  and  than,  but  consider  them  pre|x>8itions. 

Bee.  Anomalies,  in  the  latter  part  of  this  work. 

REMARKS  ON  ADJECTIVES  AND  NOUNS. 

A  critical  analysis  requires  that  the  adjective  when  used  without  its  nonu, 
should  be  parsed  as  an  atljectire  l)elouf.Hng  to  its  noun  understood  ;    as, 
"  Tiio  virtuous  [pcr*oiM]  anil  the  titiccre  {^persona'l  are  always  respected  ;" 
■'  I'rovidtMice  rewanls  the  good  {^people,']  and  pnnislies  the  bad  {_people.y* 
*'  The  eni  [^deed  or  deeds']  that  men  do,  lives  after  them; 
"  The  good  [^deed  or  deeds']  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones." 

But  sometimes  the  adjective,  by  its  manner  of  meaning,  becomes  a  noun, 
and  hiis  another  adjective  joined  to  it ;  as,  '*  the  chief  good  ;"  "  The  vast  im- 
mejise  {immensity]  of  space." 

Various  nouns  placea  before  other  nouns,  assume  the  chamcter  of  adjec- 
tives, according  to  tlieir  manner  of  meaning  ;  as,  "  Sea  fish,  iron  mortar,  wine 
vr»«M;l,  gold  watch,  com  field,  meadow  ground,  mountain  height." 

The  principle  whicli  recognises  custom  as  the  standard  of  grammatical  ac- 
c'iricy,  mi^ht  rest  for  itd  support  on  the  usage  of  only  six  wonls,  and  defy 
all  till-  subtleties  of  innovating  skeptics  to  gainsJiy  it.  If  the  genius  and 
aii;ilo;n'  of  our  language  were  the  standard,  it  would  be  correct  to  observe 
tiix  .iiim!<)i,'v.  and  say,  "  Oooil,  good^r,  goodest ;  bad,  badtii-r,  hnddest ;  little, 
liitl'  r.  hvArt! ;  much,  much*?r,  innchest."  "  By  this  mean  ;"  "  Whatar?  the 
ri'-fr.t."  But  such  a  critorion  l)etray8  only  the  weakness  of  those  who  at- 
tempt to  establish  it.  Regardless  of  the  dogmas  and  edicts  of  the  philo- 
8«jjihical  umpire,  Uie  good  sense  of  the  people  will  cause  them,  in  this  in- 
stance, as  well  as  in  a  thousand  others,  to  yield  to  custom,  and  say,  "  Good, 

tnlhiiu.     Vi'  had  none  of  the  odium  which  i«  now  associated  with 

tlie  U'vn\ ;  I  si  one  who.  under  the  feudal  system,  rented  or  held 

lands  <>r  :u»u. . ..  ks,  Henry  the  VIII.  says  to  a  vassal  or  tenant,  "As 

you  an*  an  accomplished  villain,  I  onler  that  you  receive  £700  out  of  the 

fMdilic  trea>«ur%'."  The  word  villain,  tljen,  has  given  up  its  onginal  Idea,  and 

become  the  •  'ive  of  a  new  one,  the  word  tenant  havbig  supplanted 

it.     To   pp"  '   meaning  of  vvonls  changes,  a  thouwuid  examples 

c""''  '  -  ••  '  •  with  th<»  iii»«-lli;,'eiit  remler,  proof  is  unuocesHary. 


76  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

better,  best;  bad,  worse,  worst;  little,  Zess,  least;  much,  mo?-e,  mcsi;*'  "By 
this  means ;"  "  What  is  the  news  ?" 

With  resard  to  the  using  of  adjectives  and  other  qualifying  words,  care 
must  be  talcen,  or  your  language  will  frequently  amount  to  absurdity  or  non- 
sense. Let  the  following  general  remark,  which  is  better  thtm  a  dozen  nde«, 
put  you  on  j'our  guard.  Whenever  you  utter  a  sentence,  or  put  your  pen  on 
paper  to  wnte,  weigh  well  in  your  mind  the  meaning  of  the  words  which  you 
are  about  to  employ.  See  that  they  convey  precisely  the  ideas  which  you 
wish  to  express  by  them,  and  thus  you  will  avoid  innumerable  eiTors.  In 
•peaking  of  a  man,  we  may  say,  with  propriety,  he  is  very  wicked,  or  ex- 
ceedingly lavish,  because  the  terms  wicked  and  lavish  are  adjectives  that  ad- 
mit of  comparison;  but,  if  we  take  the  words  in  their  literal  acceptation, 
there  is  a  solecism  in  calling  a  man  very  honest,  or  exceedingly  just,  for  the 
words  honest  Kudijust,  literally  admit  of  no  comparison.  In  point  of  fact,  a 
man  is  honest  or  dishonest,  just  or  unjust:  there  can  be  no  medium  or  excess 
hi  this  respect.  Very  correct,  very  incorrect,  very  right,  very  wrong,  are 
common  expressions;  but  they  are  not /j^era%  proper.  What  is' not  cor 
rect,  must  be  incorrect ;  arid  that  which  is  not  incorrect,  must  be  correct . 
-what  is  not  right,  must  be  wrong ;  and  that  which  is  not  wrong,  must  bo 
right.  To  avoid  that  circimilocution  which  must  otherwise  take  place,  our 
best  speakers  and  writers,  however,  frequently  compare  adjectives  which  do 
not  literally  admit  of  comparison  :  "  The  most  established  practice  ;"  "  The 
most  uncertain  method ;"  "  Irving,  as  a  writer,  is/ar  more  accurate  than  Addi 
son ;"  "  The  metaphysical  investigations  of  our  philosophical  grammars,  are 
$till  more  incomprehensible  to  the  learner."  Comparisons  like  these,  should 
genei-ally  be  avoided  ;  but  sometimes  they  are  so  convenient  in  practice,  as 
to  render  them  admissible.  Such  expressions  can  be  reconciled  with  the 
principles  of  grammar,  only  by  considering  tliem  as  figurative. 

Comparative  members  of  sentences,  should  be  set  in  direct  opposition  to 
each  other ;  as,  "  Pope  was  rich,  but  Goldsmith  was  poor."  The  following 
sentences  are  inaccurate:  "Solomon  was  ■fOTser  than  Cicero  was  eloquent." 
"  The  principles  of  the  reformation  were  deeper  in  the  prince's  mind  than  to 
be  easily  eradicated."  This  latter  sentence  contains  no  comparison  at  all ; 
neither  does  it  literally  convey  any  meaning.  Again,  if  the  Psalmist  had 
said,  "  I  am  the  wisest  of  my  teachers,"  he  would  have  spoken  absurdly, 
because  the  phrase  would  imply,  that  he  was  one  of  his  teachers.  But  in 
sajnng,  "  I  am  wiser  than  my  teachers,"  he  does  not  consider  himself  one  of 
them,  but  places  himself  in  contradistinction  to  them. 

Before  you  proceed  any  farther,  you  may  answer  the  following 
QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN  PARSING. 

What  is  the  distinction  between  a  noun  and  an  adjective  ? — * 
By  what  sign  may  an  adjective  be  known  ? — Are  participles  ever 
used  as  adjectives  ? — Does  gender,  person,  number,  or  case,  be- 
long  to  adjectives? — How  are  they  varied  ?— Name  the  three 
degrees  of  comparison. — What  effect  have  less  and  least  m  com- 
paring  adjectives? — Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  an  adjective. — 
What  rule  applies  in  parsing  an  adjective  ? — What  rule  in  pars 
ing  a  verb  agreeing  with  a  noun  of  multitude  conveying  imity  of 
idea  ? — What  Note  should  be  applied  in  parsing  an  adjective 
which  belongs  to  a  pronoun  ? — What  Note  in  parsing  numeral 
adjectives? 


IDJJXrriTEB. — PALSB   SYNTAX.  77 

Repent  nil  xhr  \  <  ^  o(  oompariMH,  men 

tinned  ill  tin-  fii-st  )  lives;  ripe,  frugal,  mi»- 

'  ifvous,  happy,  tthlr,  good,  ItUit,  mitck  or  many,   near,  late,  old. — Narna 

iM»»  iiilJHctivfR  t)mt  ar«  alwuyn  in  the  •iij)orljitive,  ami  never  ctimfwired.— 


\  ou  prove  tli  tiie  stauiiani  ol  grainiiuitical  accuracy  / 

(.'  ON  Tin:  riiir.osopiiiCAL  notes 

'■  'iie  true  character  of  an 

'lit  of  the  termiuatious, 

-^  tlio  three  ways  in 

iaally  performed? 

'-     -  iiiibersT — Wbntifl 

s.tiu  i>i  the  ciiutigeA  prutluued  iu  tht»  uieauiiig  id  wuulit,  by  the  principle  of 

u.-v-ociaLiouT 

EXERCISES  IN  FALSE  ^NTAX. 

Note  9,  under  Rlle  18.  Double  Comparatives  and  Swperla- 
ttves  should  be  avoided ;  such  as,  worser,  lesser,  more  deeper, 
more  wickeder,  &c. :  chief  est,  sitpremest,  perfectest,  tightest ;  or 
more  perfect,  most  perfect,  most  supreme,  &c. 

Virtue  confers  the  most  supreme  dignite  on  man,  and  it  should 
be  his  chiefest  desire. 

He  made  the  greater  light  to  rule  the  day,  and  the  lesser  light 
to  rule  the  night. 

Tiio  Tiln:.«>^  "  most  RijMriMiKv"  and  "chiefest,"  in  the  first  sentence,  are 

ii  /are  in  the  superlative  degree  without 

}  ..uled,  which  addition  makes  them  dotiblo 

They  t-iiould  be  v,  nlten,  "  confers  supreme  dignity,"  and  "  his 

ly,  one  thing  is  le$a  than  another,  or  smaller  iixan  another,  because 
s  less  and  smaller  aie  in  the  conijiarative  degix*e  ;  but  the  phniso 

it,"  ill  the  second  sentence,  is  inaccurate.  Lesser  is  a  doublo 
roiii|>,ir.tti\f,  which,  acconling  to  the  preceding  Note,  should  bo  avoide<l. 
!.•  ss,-r  i>  ;is  incorrect  as  bacUler,  gooder,  tcorser.  *'  The  smaller  light,"  would 
1.  •  less  exceptionable.  You  can  correct  the  following  without  my  assistance. 
(  ontct  thein/owr  times  over. 

The  pleasures  of  the  understanding  are  more  preferable  than 
those  of  imagination  or  sense. 

The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse,  which  rt^s  the  faster  the  les- 
ser wrjcrht  it  carries. 

The  nicrhtingale's  voice  is  the  most  sweetest  in  the  grovo. 

Tlio  Most  f  liirhost  hath  created  us  for  his  glory. 

He  was  adiul      '        '..•  chiefest  offices. 

The  first  wii  a  strong  proof  of  the  fact;  the  next  a 

more  stronger  stiil  ;  i>ut  the  la.st  witnes.s,the  most  stronger  of  all. 

He  gave  the  fullest  and  the  most  sincere  pnx)f  of  the  truer 
friendship. 


78  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

LECTURE  V. 

OF  PARTICIPLES. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verh,  and 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjec- 
tive. 

Verbs  have  three  participles,  the  present  or  imper- 
fect, the  perfect,  and  the  compound. 

The  present  or  imperfect  participle  denotes  action 
or  being  continued,  but  not  perfected.  It  always 
ends  in  ing ;  as,  ruling,  being :  "  I  am  writing  a  let- 
ter." 

The  perfect  participle  denotes  action  or  being  per- 
fected or  finished.  When  derived  from  a  regular 
verb,  it  ends  in  ed,  and  corresponds  with  the  imper- 
fect tense ;  as,  ruled,  smiled :  "  The  letter  is  written.'' 

The  compound  participle  implies  action  or  being 
completed  before  the  time  referred  to.  It  is  formed 
by  placing  having  before  the  perfect  participle ;  as, 
having  ruled,  having  been  ruled :  "  Having  written  the 
letter,  he  mailed  it." 

The  term  Participle  comes  from  the  Latin  word  participio, 
which  signifies  to  partake  ;  and  this  name  is  given  to  this  part  of 
speech,  because  it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  verb  and  of  the 
adjective. 

PHILOSOPHICAL   NOTES. 

Participles  are  formed  by  adding  to  the  verb  the  termination  ing,  ed,  or  en. 
Ing  signifies  the  same  as  the  nmin  being.  When  postfixed  to  the  noun-state 
of  the  verb,  the  compound  word  thus  formed,  expresses  a  continued  state  of 
the  verbal  denotement.  It  implies  that  what  is  meant  by  the  verb,  is  being 
continued.  En  is  an  alteration  of  an,  the  Saxon  verbalizing  adjunct ;  ed  is 
a  contraction  of  dede  ;  and  the  terminations  d  and  i,  are  a  contraction  of  ed  . 
Participles  ending  in  ed  or  en,  usually  denote  the  dodo,  dede,  doed,  did,  done, 
or  finished  state  of  what  is  meant  by  the  verb.  The  book  is  printed.  It  is 
a  print-ed  or  print-done  book,  or  such  a  one  as  the  done  act  of  printing  has 
made  it.  The  book  is  written ;  i.  e.  it  has  received  the  done  or  finisk-cd  act 
of  writ-ing  it. 

Participles  bear  the  same  relation  to  verbs,  that  adnouns  do  to  nouns. 
They  might,  therefore,  be  styled  verbal  adjectives.  But  that  theory  which 
ranks  them  "with  adnouns,  appears  to  rest  on  a  sandy  foundation      In  classi 


FAltTlCU'LES.  79 

Hy  many  writrrs,  the  participle  Is  classed  with  the  vrih,  and 
trpaied  ns  a  j)art  of  it;  but,  an  it  has  no  nominative,  partakes  of 
the  nature  of  an  adjective,  requires  many  syntactical  rules  which 
apply  not  to  the  verb,  and,  in  some  other  respects,  has  properties 
peculiar  to  itsrlf,  it  is  believed  that  its  character  is  sufficiently 
distinct  from  the  verb,  to  entitle  it  to  the  rank  of  a  separate  pan 
of  speech.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  connecting  link  between,  nqt  only 
(he  adjective  and  the  verb,  but  also  the  noun  and  the  verb. 

All  participles  are  compound  in  their  mining  and  office.  Lik*> 
verbs,  they  express  action  and  being,  and  denote  time ;  and,  like 
adjectives,  they  describe  the  nouns  of  which  they  denote  the 
action  or  being.  In  the  sentences.  The  boatman  is  crnssfng  the 
river ;  I  see  a  man  laboring  in  the  field  ;  Charles  is  standlug  ; 
you  perceive  that  the  participles  crossing  and  laboring  express  the 
actions  of  the  boatman  and  the  man,  and  standing  the  state  of 
being  of  Charles.  In  these  respects,  then,  tijcy  partake  of  the 
nature  of  verbs.  You  also  notice,  that  they  dcscribeAhc:  several 
nouns  associated  with  them,  like  describing  adjectives;  and  that, 
in  this  respect,  they  participate  the  properties  of  atljectivos.  A  nd, 
furthermore,  you  observe  they  denote  actions  whicii  are  still  going 
on  ;  that  is,  incmnplete  or  unfaiixhed  actions ;  for  which  reasnii 
we  call  them  imperfect  participles. 

Perhaps  I  can  illustrate  their  character  more  clearly.  When 
the  imperfect  or  present  and  perfect  participles  are  placed  before 
nouns,  they  become  defining  or  describing  adjectives,  and  are 
denominated  participial  adjectives  ;  as,  A  loviiig  companion  ;  The 
nppling  stream  ;  Roaring  winds  ;  A  wilted  leaf;  An  aacompli sited 
scholar.  Here  the  words  loving^  rippling,  roaring,  wilted,  and 
■iccomplished,  describe  or  define  the  nouns  with  which  they  are 
associated.  And  where  the  participles  are  placed  after  tlieir 
noims,  they  have,  also,  this  descriptive  quality.     If  I  say,  I  see 

f\  I'l.:  words,  we  ought  to  be  guided  more  hj  tlieir  manner  of  meaning,  and 
'.li'-ii-  inferrntial  meaning,  than  hy  their  primitive,  cRsential  eignification. 

"  I  have  a  broken  ])lHte  ;"  i.  e.  I  have  a  plate — broken  ;  "  I  have  broken  a 

plati»."     If  thwre  i»  no  difTerence  in  the  ettential  meaning  of  the  word  broken^ 

III."',  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  tliere  is  a  wide  differ- 

•'•rrr<Z  hy  custom  ;  wliich  difTerence  dopen«ls  on  the 

I     -•-        rra  is  applied.     The  former  conHtniction  denotes,  that 

I  poti'ii  8  plate  which  was  broken,  (whether  with  or  without  my  agency,  is 

not  intiinat'Hl,)  perhaps,  one  hundred  or  one  thouaaml  years  ago;  whereas, 

'    _'  of  the  latter  in.  that  T  performed  the  act  of  reducing  the  plat« 

lo  to  a  broken  stato ;  and  it  is  not  intimated  whether  I  posKOM  it, 

■  »*!<^.      It  ftj»|>**ar9  ren«»onHhlo,  that,  in  a  practical  gra»iiMi;ir,  at 

1<- 1^"     !•  •    ■•     •!   A':'  'i  •       irs  in  ciMi.stnictions  diflering  so  widely,  may  pro* 

p.  lis  (..(I-.,  a  \v;Ui  iiiii.  i.nt  parts  of  speech.     This  illustration  likewit* 

ewtAblishos  th^p«()rbty^  of  rutaiuin^  what  wo  call  the  perftei  iett  of  thv  ▼•rb. 


80  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

the  moon  rising  ;  The  horse  is  running  a  race ;  The  dog  is  leai^n  ; 
I  describe  the  several  objects,  as  a  rising  moon,  a  running  horse, 
and  a  heaten  dog,  as  well  as  when  I  place  these  paiticiples  before 
the  nouns.  The  same  word  is  a  participle  or  a  participial  adjec- 
tive, according  to  its  manner  of  meaning.  The  preceding  illus- 
tration, however,  shows  that  this  distinction  is  founded  on  a  veiy 
light  shade  of  difference  in  the  meaning  of  the  two.  The  fol- 
owing  examples  will  enable  you  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the 
other. 

Participles.  Participial  adjectives* 

See  the  sun  setting.  See  the  setting  sun. 

See  the  moon  rising.  See  the  rising  moon. 

The  wind  is  roaring.  Hear  the  roaring  wind. 

The  twig  is  broken.  The  broken  twig  fell. 

The  vessel  anchored  in  the  The  ancliored  vessel  spreads 

bay,  lost  her  mast.  her  sail. 

The  present  or  imperfect  participle  is  known  by  its  ending  in 
ing  ;  as,  fioati/i^,  riding,  heanw^,  seeing.  These  are  derived  from 
the  verbs,  Jloat,  ride,  hear,  and  see.  But  some  words  ending  in 
i7ig  are  not  participles ;  such  as  evening,  inoming,  hireling,  sap- 
ling, uninteresting,  unbelieving,  uncontrolUng.  When  you  parse 
a  word  ending  in  ing,  you  should  always  consider  whether  it 
comes  from  a  verb  or  not.  There  is  such  a  verb  as  interest,  hence 
you  know  that  the  word  interesting  is  a  participle  ;  but  there  is  no 
such  verb  as  wwinterest,  consequently,  uninteresting  can  not  be  a 
participle :  but  it  is  an  adjective ;  as,  an  uninteresting  story. 
You  will  be  able  very  easily  to  distinguish  the  participle  from 
the  other  parts  of  speech,  when  you  shall  have  acquired  a  more 
extensive  knowledge  of  the  verb. 

Speak  the  participles  from  each  of  these  verbs,  learn,  walk, 
shun,  smile,  sail,  conquer,  manage,  reduce,  Telate,  discover,  over- 
rate, disengage.  Thus,  Pres.  learning,  Perf.  learned,  Comp. 
having  learned.  Pres.  walking,  Perf.  walked,  Compound,  Imving 
walked,  and  so  on. 

You  may  now  commit  the  order  of  parsing  a  participle,  and 
hen  proceed  with  me. 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  a  Participle,  is — a  partici- 
ple, and  why  ? — from  what  verb  is  it  derived  ? — speak 
the  three — present,  perfect,  or  compound,  and  why  ? 
—to  what  does  it  refer  or  belong  ? — Rule. 


PARTICIPLES.  ^1 

"I  saw  a  vessel  sailing.** 

Sailing  is  a  participle,  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  par- 
akcs  of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective — it  comes 
tVom  the  verb  to  sail — pres.  sailing,  perf.  sailed,  comp.  having 
sailed — it  is  a  present  or  imperfect  participle,  because  it  denotes 
(he  continuance  of  an  unfinished  action — and  refers  to  the  noun 
'  vessel  "  for  its  subject,  according  to 

Rule  27.  The  present  participle  refers  to  some  noun  or  pronoun 
Ihiotmg  the  subject  or  actor. 

"  Not  a  breath  disturbs  the  sleeping  billow." 

Sleeping  is  a  participial  adjective,  a  word  added  to  a  noun  to 
.  xpri'ss  its  quality — it  cannot,  with  propriety,  be  compared — it 
belonfjs  to  the  noun  "  billow,"  agreeably  to 

Ili.LE  18.  Adjettivcs  belong  to^and  qttalify,  nouns  expressed  or 
VTiflrrsloofl. 

You  will  please  to  parse  these  two  words  several  times  over, 
and,  by  a  little  reflection,  you  will  perfectly  understand  the  27th 
Rule.  Recollect,  the  participle  never  varies  its  termination  to 
agree  with  a  noun  or  pronoun,  for,  as  it  has  no  nominative,  it  has 
no  agreement ;  but  it  simply  refers  to  an  actor.  Exampi6«:  I 
see  a  vessel  sailing  ;  or,  I  see  three  vessels  sailui((.  You  p»?rc('ive 
that  the  participle  sailing  refers  to  a  singul&x  iirun  in  ihe  iiTst 
example,  and  trra  plural  noun  in  the  second;  «nd  yet  lh«  parti- 
ciple is  in  the  same  form  in  both  examples.  'I  ne  noun  •«**/  is 
in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  transitive  verb  s^e. 
Rut  when  a  verb  follows  a  noun,  the  ending  of  tho  "»:^  o^^ne- 
rally  varies  in  order  to  agree  with  the  noun  which  is  ii»  ».«j:ina- 
tive  ;  as,  the  vessel  sail^ ;  the  vessels  sail. 

In  this  place  it  may  not  be  improper  to  notice  another  Rule 
that  relates  to  the  participle.  In  the  sentence,  "  The  man  is  heat- 
ing his  horse,"  the  noun  horse  js  in  the  objective  case,  because  it 
is  the  object  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  active-transitive  par- 
ticiple "  beating,"  and  it  is  governed  by  the  participle  beating, 
according  to 

Ri  I  E  26.  Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs 
have  from  which  ihey  are  derived. 

The  principle  uix)n  which  this  rule  is  founded,  is  quite  appa- 
rent.    As  a  participle  derived  from  a  transitive  verb,  expre.s.ses  the 
•viriin  kind  of  action  as  its  verb,  it  necessarily  follows,  (hat  the 
irticiple  must  govern  the  same  case  as  the  verb  from  vvhich  it 
s  derived. 

When  you  shall  have  .studied  this  lecture  attentively,  you  may 
proceed  and  parse  the  following  exercises,  containing  five  parts 
f  speech.     If,  in  analyzing  these  examples,  you  find  any  word* 


83  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

which  you  cannot  parse  correctly  and  systematically  by  referring 
to  your  Compend  for  definitions  and  rules,  you  will  please  to  turn 
back  and  read  over  again  the  whole  Jive  lectures.  You  must  ex- 
ercise a  little  patience  ;  and,  for  your  encouragement,  permit  me 
to  remind  you,  that  when  you  shall  have  acquired  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  these  five  parts  of  speech,  only  jive  more  will 
remain  for  you  to  learn.  Be  ambitious  to  excel.  Be  thorough 
in  your  investigations.  Give  your  reasoning  powers  ft-ee  scope. 
By  studying  these  lectures  with  attention,  you  will  acquire  moro 
grammatical  knowledge  in  three  months,  than  is  commonly 
obtained  in  two  years.  ♦ 

In  the  following  examples,  the  words  purling^  crusted,  slumber- 
ing, and  twinkling,  are  participial  adjectives.  There  and  its  you 
may  omit. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Orlando  left  the  herd  grazing.  The  hunters  heard  the  young ' 
dog  barking.  The  old  fox  heard  the  sportsman's  horn  sounding. 
Deep  rivers  float  long  rafts.  Purling  streams  moisten  the  earth's 
surface.  The  sun  approaching,  melts  the  crusted  snow.  The 
slumbering  seas  calmed  the  grave  old  hermit's  mind.  Pale 
Cynthia  declining,  clips  the  horizon.  Man  beholds  the  twinkling 
stars  adorning  night's  blue  arch.  The  stranger  saw  the  desert 
thistle  bending  there  its  lowly  head. 

REMARKS  ON  PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  frequently  become  nouns ;  as,  "  A  good  understanding  ;  Excel- 
lent writing ;  He  made  a  good  beginning,  but  a  bad  ending." 

Constructions  like  the  following,  have  long  been  sanctioned  by  tke  best 
aiitliorities :  "  The  goods  are  selling ;"  "  The  house  is  building ;"  "  The  work 
irf  n<;w  publishing.^'  A  modem  innovation,  however,  is  likely  to  supersede 
this  mode  of  expression :  thus,  "  The  goods  are  being  sold;"  "  The  house  is 
being  built ;"  "  The  work  is  now  being  published." 

You  may  now  answer  these 

QUEvSTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN  PARSING. 

How  many  kinds  of  participles  are  there  ? — What  is  the  end- 
ing of  a  present  participle  ? — What  does  a  perfect  participle 
denote  ? — With  what  does  the  perfect  participle  of  a  regular  verb 
correspond  ? — What  is  a  compound  participle  ?— From  what  word 
is  the  term  participle  derived  ? — Why  is  this  part  of  speech  thus 
named  ? — Wherein  does  this  part  of  speech  partake  of  the  nature 
of  a  verb  ? — Do  all  participles  participate  the  properties  of  ad- 
jectives ? — In  what  respect  ? — When  are  participles  called  par- 
ticipial adjectives  ? — Give  examples. — How  may  a  present  parti- 
ciple be  known  ? — Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  a  participle. — 
What  rule  applies  in  parsing  a  present  participle  ? — What  Rule 
in  parsincr  a  participial  adjective? — Do  participles  vary  in  ilioir 


OF   ADVKRBS.  63. 

iprminalions  in  order  to  agxce  with  their  subject  or  actor  ? — What 
Rulo  applies  in  parsing  a  noun  in  the  objective  casCy  governed 
by  a  participle? — Do   participles  ever  become   nouns? — Give 

'IONS  ON  THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  NOTES. 

How  irnetlT — What  does  the  iin{)«rfect  part  expreMf— 

What  d  i)ie8  denote  T 


LECTtTRE  VI 

OF  ADVERBS. 


An  Adverb  is_a  word  used  to  modify  the  sense  of 
a  verhy  a,  par^'  '  '      a  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

Recollect,  an  ..  . .,  ..  ..over  qualifies  a  vou7i.  It  qualifies  any 
of  the  four  parts  of  speech  abovenanied,  and  none  others. 

To  modify  OT  qualify y  you  know,  means  to  produce  some  change. 
The  adverb  modifies.  If  I  say,  Wirt's  style  excels  Irving's,  the 
proposition  is  affirmative,  and  the  verb  exceh  expresses  the  affir- 
mation. But  when  I  say,  Wirt's  style  excels  not  Irving's,  the 
assertion  is  changed  to  a  negative.  What  is  it  that  thus  modifies 
or  changes  the  meaning  of  the  verb  excels  ?  You  perceive  that 
it  is  the  little  word  not.  This  word  has  poWer  to  reverse  the 
meaning  of  the  sentence.  Not^  then,  is  a  modifier,  qualifier,  or 
negative  adverb. 

When  an  adverb  is  used%)  modify  the  sense  of  a  verb  or  par- 
ticiple, it  generally  expresses  the  manner,  time,  or  place,  in  which 
the  action  is  performed,  or  some  accidental  circumstance  respect- 
ing it.     In  the  phrases.  The  man   rides  gracefully,  awhoardly, 

PHILOSOPHICAL    NOTES. 
Ah  die  happiness  and  incrcasinc  prosperity  of  a  people  essentially  depend 

on"     '       ' '=        ■ .1.1.. .    1...,  1 ;..  ..11  :.,  suh 

111  •^•.  it 

n...  'i  snr- 

Ctfasivc  i'ly  to  i)rt»}ii-ecK.  iu  Uiu  loriuor,  will  uol  bo  uoglcctfiil 

of  tlin  •  itinnient  of  the  latter.     The  truth  of  thi^  remark  is 

ni..  '      '"  '   '  -  '  "    "-  -" '  '   - 

ni' 

iu>  Xu  lurtii  wbiit  wu  cull  adverbs,  distriljuliTe:), 

ct)i    .  ;  for  J  presiuue  it  will  bo  readily  cuucoded, 


84  ETYMOLOGY    AND  SYNTAX, 

badly,  swiftly,  slowly,  &c. ;  or,  I  saw  the  man  riding  swiftly,  sloivly^ 
leisurely,  very  fast,  &c.,  you  perceive  that  the  words  gracefully  ^ 
awkwardly,  very  fast, &^o.f  are  adverbs,  qualifying  the  verb  rides,  or 
the  participle  riding  ^  because  they  express  the  manner  in  which 
the  -action  denoted  by  the  verb  and  participle,  is  done. 

In  the  phrases,  The  man  rides  daily,  weekly,  seldom,  frequenily^ 
often,  sometimes,  never ;  or.  The  man  rode  yesterday j  heretofore, 
long  since,  long  ago,  recently,  lately,  just  now  ;  or.  The  man  will 
nde  soon,  presently,  directly,  immediately,  hy  and  by,  to-day,  here- 
after, you  perceive  that  all  these  words  in  italics,  are  adverbs, 
qualifying  the  meaning  of  the  verb  rides,  because  they  express 
the  time  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  verb. 

Again,  if  I  say.  The  man  lives  here,  near  by,  yonder,  remote, 
far  off,  somewhere,  notohere,  everywhere,  &c.,  the  words  in  ital- 
ics are  adverbs  of  place,  because  they  tell  where  he  lives. 

Adverbs  likewise  qualify  adjectives,  and  sometimes  other  ad- 
verbs;  as,  fnore  wise,  most  wise;  or  more  wisely,  most  wisely. 
When  an  adverb  is  joined  to  an  adjective  or  adverb,  il;^generally 
expresses  the  degree  of  comparison  ;  for  adverbs,  like  adjectives, 
have  degrees  of  comparison.  Thus,  in  the  phrase,  A  skilful  artist, 
you  know  the  adjective  skilful  is  in  the  positiye  degree ;  but,  by 
placing  the  adverb  more  before  the  adjective,  we  increase  the 
degree  of  quality  denoted  by  the  adjective  to  the  comparative  ; 
as,  A  more  skilful  artist :  and  m^st  renders  it  superlative  ;  as,  A 
most  skilful  artist.  And  if  we  place  more  and  most  before  other 
adverbs,  the  effect  is  the  same ;  as,  skilfully,  m^e  skilfully,  most 
skilfully. 

COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 


Positive.                     Comparative* 

H) 

Superlative, 

soon,                            sooner. 

soonest. 

often,                           oftener, 

oftenest. 

much,                          more. 

most. 

well,                            better, 

best. 

far,                               farther. 

farthest. 

wisely,                        more  wisely, 

most  wisely. 

justly,                         more  justly, 

most  justly. 

justly,                         less  justly. 

least  justly. 

You  will  generally  know  an  adverb 

at  sight ;  but  sometimes 

that  conciseness,  as  well  as  copiousness  and  perspicnity  in  language,  is  the 
offspring  of  refinement.  That  an  immense  amount  of  time  and  breath  ia 
Baved  by  the  use  of  adverbs,  the  following  development  will  clearly  demon- 
Rtrate.  He  who  is  successful  in  contracting  one  mode  of  expression  that  i? 
daily  used  by  thirty  millions,  doubtless  does  much  for  their  benefit. 

N'ost  adverbs  express  in  one  word  what  would  otherwise  require  t  wo  or 


or    ADVERBS.  85 

vni  will  find  it  more  difficult  to  be  distinguished,  than  any  other 
part  of  speech  in  the  English  lani^tiage.  I  will,  therefore,  give 
/ou  some  sifpM  which  will  assist  you  a  little. 

Most  words  ending  in  hj  are  adverbs ;  such  as,  poJitelt/,  grace- 
fttUy^  jtidiciousJy.  Any  word  or  short  phrase  that  will  answer 
to  any  one  of  the  questions,  how  ?  how  much  ?  when  ?  or  where  ? 
is  an  adverb  ;  as,  The  river  flows  rapidly  ;  He  walks  venf  fast  y 
He  has  gone  far  away ;  but  be  w  ill  soon  return ;  She  sings 
sweetly  ;  They  learn  none  at  all.  How,  or  in  what  manner  docs 
the  river  flow  ?  Rapidly.  How  does  he  walk  ?  Very  fast. 
Where  has  he  gone  ?  Far  away.  When  will  he  return  ?  Soon, 
I  low  does  she  sing  ?  Sweetly.  How  much  do  they  learn  ?  None 
at  all.  From  this  illustration,  you  perceive,  that,  if  you  could 
not  tell  these  adverbs  by  the  sense,  you  would  know  them  by 
their  answering  to  the  questions.  However,  your  bettor  way  will 
be  to  distinguish  adverbs  by  considering  the  ofllice  they  perform 
in  the  sentence ;  q^i'^bv  noticing  their  grammatical  relation,  or 
their  situation,  with  respect  to  other  words.  To  gain  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  their  Wal  character,  is  highly  important.  Rapidly, 
fast,  far  away,  soon,  sweetly,  &c.  are  known  to  be  adverbs  by 
their  qualifying  the  sense  of  verbs.  "  A  very  good  pen  writes 
extremely  wcll.^'  Well,  in  this  sentence,  is  known  to  be  an  ad- 
verb by  its  qualifying  the  sense  of  the  verb  writes ;  extremely^ 
by  its  ending  in  ly,  or  by  its  being  joined  to  the  adverb  well  to 
qualify  it ;  and  very  is  known  as  an  adverb  by  its  joining  the 
adjective  good. 

Expressions  like  these,  none  at  all,  a  great  deal,  a  few  days 
ago,  long  since,  at  length,  in  vain,  when  they  are  used  to  denote 
the  manner  or  time  of  the  action  of  verbs  or  participles,  are  gen- 
erally called  adverbial  phrases. 

inoro  words ;  as,  "  He  did  it  here,**  for,  He  did  it  in  this  plaee ;  there,  for,  in 
thai  fpfaee  ;  trhere,  for,  in  ickat  place  ;  note,  for,  a(  this  time.  Why  means /or 
wkal  reason  ;  hotp — in  frhai  mind,  mood,  mode,  or  manner;  exceedinsly — to  a 
.great  def^ree ;  very — in  an  eminent  degree;  often  and  seldom  signify  many 
Umr$./rtr  times. 

Tlio  jirocedures  by  which  wonls  have  been  contracted,  mo<lifie<l  and  com- 
bineil.  to  form  this  clans  of  words,  have  been  various.  The  most  prolific 
bmily  of  this  illegitimate  race,  are  those  in  ly,  a  contraction  of  like.  Gentle^ 
man-iy.  m«*ans  gentleman-like,  like  a  peutleman.  We  do  not  yet  say,  ladily, 
but  lady-like.  The  north  Britons  still  say,  miselike,  manliks,  instead  of,  nrwe- 
/i/.  manly. 

Quirk  comes  from  giriek,  the  past  part,  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  gieiceian, 
'  vivify,  give  life.  Qitirk-h/  or  h*^e-ly,  means,  in  a  qnick-like  or  life'like  man* 
tf^;  in  the  manner  of  ii  il  has  life.     Rapid-ly — rapid-like,  like  a 

rttpid:  a  quiek-ly  or  swr  ■  place  in  a  stream. 

Al'ivays,  contraction  ui  .»  »..  i^^^t.     By  a  alight  transition,  it  nieaiuk  in  oi 


O  ETYMOLOGY   ANh   SYNTAX. 

Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may,  for  the  sake  of  practical 
convenience,  be  reduced  to  particular  classes. 

1.  Of  Number  ;  as,  Once,  twice,  thrice,  &c. 

2.  Of  Order ;  as,  First,  secondly,  lastly,  finally,  &c. 

3.  Of  Place  ;  as.  Here,  there,  wliere,  elsewhere,  anywhere, 
somewhere,  nowhere,  herein,  whither,  hither,  thither,  up- 
ward, downward,  forward,  backward,  whence,  thence, 
whithersoever,  &c. 

4.  Of  Time. 

Present ;  as,  Now,  today,  &c. 

Past;  as.  Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday,  heretofore, 
hitherto,  long  since,  longago,  &c. 

Future;  as,  To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter,  henceforth, 
henceforward,  by  and  by,  instantly,  presently,  immediately, 
ere  long,  straightways,  &;c. 

Time  indefinite  ;  as.  Oft,  often,  oft-times,  often-times,  some- 
times, soon,  seldom,  daily,  weekly,  mqnthly,  yearly,  always, 
when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,  &;c.  ^ 

5.  Of  Quantity  ;  as.  Much,  little,  suffici'^iiriy,  how  much,  how 
great,  enough,  abundantly,  ifec. 

6.  Of  Manner  or  quality  ;  as.  Wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  un- 
justly,  quickly,  slowly,  &;c.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  the 
most  numerous  kind ;  and  they  are  generally  formed  by 
adding  the  termination  ly  to  an  adjective  or  a  participle,  or 
by  changing  le  into  ly ;  as.  Bad,  badly ;  cheerful,  cheer- 
fully ;  able,  ably  ;  admirable,  admirably. 

7.  Of  Doubt;  as,  Haply,  perhaps,  peradventure,  possibly,  per- 
chance. ^ 

8.  Of  Affirmation;  as,  Verily,  truly,  undoubtedly,  doubtless, 
certainly,  yea,  yes,  surely,  indeed,  really,  &c. 

9.  Of  Negation ;  as.  Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at  all, 
in  no  wise,  &;c. 

10.  Of  Interrogation  ;  as,  How,  why,  wherefore,  whither,  <kc., 
and  sometimes  when,  whence,  where. 

cU  all  times.  ^Z-o?<e,  contraction  of  fl/Z-onc.  On-ly — one-like.  Also — all  the 
»ame  (thing.)  Ever — an  ag^e.  For  ever  and  ever — for  aire*  and  o^e*.  Ever 
b  not  synonymous  with  always.  Never — ne  ever.  It  sii(nirie8  no  acre,  no 
period  of  time.  No,  contraction « of  »o^  Not,  a  modificaliou  of  ?i-o-thin!^ 
noth-insr,  naught.     "  He  is  not  greater" — ^is  greater  in  naught — in  no  thing. 

Adrift  is  the  past  part,  adrifed,  adrift  d,  adrift ;  from  the  Saxon  drifan,  oi 
adrifan,  to  drive.  Ago,  formerly  written  ygo,  gon,  agon,  gone,  agone,  is  the 
past  part,  of  the  verb  to  go.  It  refers  to  time  gone  by.  Asunder,  the  Saxon 
part,  nsundrcn,  from  the  verb  sondrian  or  asondrian,  to  separate.  Aloft — on 
the  loft,  on  hift,  on  lyft ;  lyft  being  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  air  or  clovdt 
Astray,  the  part,  of  straegan,  to  stray.     Awry,  part,  of  wry  than,  to  writhe. 

Needs — need-is ;  anciently,  ned<:s,  node  is. 


ADVERBS. PABSKNO.  »7 

11.  Of  Comparison;  as,  More,  most,  better,  best,  worse,  worst, 
less,  least,  very,  almost,  little,  alike,  &c. 
NOTES. 
1.  Tlr  •  contain*  but  a  small  portion  of  the  adverbs  in  our  Ian- 

guJii."^.  rbs  are  fonnod  by  a  coinbiiiatiou  of  prepositions  with  the 

atl ,     '  ''  '        :  Hereof,  thereof,  \v'  '":  Mfreto, 

th  'by;  herewith,!!  iiere- 

w  :     ,  ',  (i.  e.  there-for,)  \  .  (i.  e, 

wlHTc-ft-r. »  u.T.ii|niu,  herouu,  iboreupuu,  tliereon,  whereupon,  wiiereuu,  «&c. 
•J.  Sunn.'  .nUctltd  are  composed  of  nouns  or  verbs  and  the  letter  a,  u*ed 
instead  of  a/,  on,  &c. ;  w.  Aside,  athirst,  afoot,. asleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed, 
a;^'round,  afloat,  adriA,  aghast,  ago,  askance,  away,  asunder,  astray,  &c. 

You  will  now  please  to  read  this  lecture  four  times  over,  and 
read  slowly  and  carefully,  for  unless  you  understand  well  tho 
nature  and  character  of  this  part  of  speech,  you  will  be  fre- 
quently at  a  loss  to  distinguish  it  from  others  in  composition. 
Now  do  you  notice,  that,  in  this  sentence  which  you  have  just 
read,  the  words  slowly^  carefully^  toellj  And  frequently ,  are  adverbs  ? 
And  do  you  again  observe,  that,  in  the  question  I  have  just  put 
to  you,  the  words  7WW  and  jtut  are  adverbs  ?  Exercise  a  little 
sober  thought.  Fifleen  minutes  spent  in  reflection,  are  worth 
whole  days  occupied  in  careless  reading. 

In  the  following  exercises  six  parts  of  speech  are  presented, 
namely.  Nouns,  VeAs,  Articles,  Adjectives,  Participles,  and  Ad- 
verbs ;  and  I  believe  you  are  now  prepared  to  parse  them  all 
agreeably  to  the  systematic  order, ybur  times  over.  Those  words 
in  italics  are  adverbs. 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  an  Adverb,   is — an  ad  veil), 
and   why  ? — what   sort  ? — what  does  it  qualify  ?— 
Rule. 

"  My  friend  has  returned  again  ;  but  his  health  is  7iot  very  good." 
Again,  is  an  adverb,  a  word  used  to  modify  the  sense  of  a 
verb— of  time  indefinite,  it  expresses  a  period  of  time  not  pre- 
cisely defined — it  qualifies  the  verb  "has  returned,"  according  to 

To-*cU,  the  infinitive  of  witan,  U)  know.     It  means,  to  be  Imoum. 

Ay  or  yen  signifies  have  it,  enjoy  it.  Yes  is  ay-rx,  have,  possess,  enjny  thai. 
Our  corrupt  o-yet  of  the  crier,  is  tho  French  imi)eniiive,  oxfez,  hear,  listen. 

Straight  way — by  a  straight  way.  White — trhret;  i)cnod  in  which  som&> 
thing  wkiU$  or  wkref^  ••    t      ,^1,      jr,// — {„  while. 

Per,  Latin,— the  !  Perhaps — i>er  haps,  per  chance. 

These  examples  it  ii  are  given  with  the  view  to  invite  the  atten- 

tion i>f  ih»  intelligent  pupil  to  the  "  Diversioni  of  Purley,  by  John  Horn* 
Tooke." 


SS  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

Rule  29.  Adverbs  qtialify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  ana 
other  adverbs. 

Not  is  an  adverb,  a  word  used  to  modify  the  sense  of  an  ad- 
verb— of  negation,  it  makes  the  assertion  negative ;  that  is,  it 
changes  the  proposition  from  an  affirmative  to  a  negative — and 
it  qualifies  the  adverb  "very,"  agreeably  to  Rule  29.  Adverbs 
qualify  verbs,  S^c. 

Very  is  an  adverb,  a  word  used  to  qualify  the  sense  of  an  ad- 
jective— of  comparison,  it  compares  the  adjective  "  good,"  and 
qualifies  it  according  to  Rule  29.     Adverbs  qualify  adjectives,  S^-c. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING.  . 

The  traveller  described  a  lofty  castle  decaying  gradually. 
Very  few  literary  men  ever  become  distinguished  poets.  The 
great  Milton  excels  not  Homer.  The  Roman  women  once,vol- 
untarily  contributed  their  most  precious  jewels  to  save  the  city. 

Many  small  streams  uniting,  form  very  large  rivers.  The 
river  Funza  fsiiUng  perpendicularly,  forms  a  vast  cataract.  Atten- 
tive servants  always  drive  horses  very  carefully  ;  negligent  ser- 
vants often  drive  horses  very  carelessly.  Assiduous  scholars 
lui^row Q  very  fast ;  idle  scholars  learn  none  at  all.  Friendship 
often  ends  in  love  ;  but  love  in  friendship,  nefner. 

Note.  Several  adverbs  frequently  qualify  one  verb.  Have  you  w^alked  f 
Not  yet  quite  far  enough,  perhaps.  Not,  yet,  far,  and  enough,  qualify  "  have 
walked"  understood ;  perhaps  qualifies  not ;  and  quite  qualifies  far.  Tho 
adverbs  always  and  carefully  both  qualify  the  verb  "  drive :"  the  former  ex- 
presses time,  and  the  latter,  manner.  Once  and  voluntarily  qualify  the  verb 
"  contributed  ;"  the  former  expresses  numhcr,  and  the  latter,  manner.  The 
word  their  you  need  not  parse.  The  active  verb  to  save  has  no  nominative. 
The  nouns  love  and  friendship,  following  t»,  are  in  the  objective  case,  and 
governed  by  that  preposition. 

REMARKS  ON  ADVERBS. 

When  the  v^ords  therefore,  consequently,  accordingly,  and  'A\<^  like,  are  used 
in  connexion  with  other  conjunctions,  they  are  adverbs;  but  wli^n  they  ap- 
pear single,  they  are  commonly  considered  co7ijnnctions. 

The  words  when  and  where,  and  all  others  of  the  Pame  uftture,  such  as 
whence,  whither,  whenever,  wherever,  till,  until,  hefove,  othertoise,  while,  tchere- 
fore,  &c.  may  be  properly  called  adverbial  conjunctions,  because  they  partici- 
pate the  nature  both  of  adverbs  and  conjunctions ;  of  adverbs,  as  they  de- 
note the  attributes  either  of  time  or  place ;  of  conjunctions,  as  they  conjoin 
sentences. 

There  are  many  w^ords  that  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and  some- 
times as  adverbs  ;  as,  "  More  men  than  women  were  there  ;  I  am  mf)re  dili- 
gent than  he."  In  the  former  sentence  m^re  is  evidently  an  adjective,  for  it 
IS  joined  to  a  noun  to  qualify  it ;  in  the  latter  it  is  an  adverb,  because  it  q^.ali- 
fies  an  adjective.  There  are  others  that  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns,  »nd 
sometimes  as  adverbs;  as,  ''to-day^s  lesson  is  longer  than  yesferda>/s."  Tu 
♦^his  example,  to-day  and  yesterday  are  nours  in  the  postiessive  case  ;  hnt  m 


ADVERBS.  80 

khraaet  like  iho  following,  tUcy  are  geuerallv  coiuiidered  udverbn  of  time: 
"  He  cain6  [to  hit']  home  ycterday,  aiul  will  set  out  again  to-day."  Her* 
Ihey  are  u«mnt»,  if  we  Hupply  on  before  them. 

♦'  Whore  mxrh  [fcrnffh,  talent,  or  ooiiietliiug  else]  is  given,  mvch  \_increa*e, 

impi  "ii'tl  ;  iVwfA  money  has  1  .led;  ll'vunuch 

be!  ."     In  the  first  two  of  ;ne8,  mwcA  is  an 

Biij>  lies  a  uouu;  in  tli<>  — crb,  because  it 

qua  r.     In  short,  you  mine  to  what  part  of 

•|K  <  its  aetuCf  or  by  t  ihe  manner  in  which 

A  :  lo  distinguished  from  an  abverb  by  this  rule 

wli>  T  pronattn,  it  xa  an  adjective,  but  when  i 

qua  iae,  or  adverb,  it  is  au  atlverb. 

r  :  nuieously  calleil  adverbs,  when  their  nouns 

an-  ••  He   riJLS  ubt/ul;"    that  is,  about  the  toirn,  coufUry,  of 

stun  "  8lie  was  near  [the  a^t  or  misfortune  of]  falling  ;"  **  But 

do  1:  ■  'niit  time  or  evenl]  lay  tije  blame  on  me."     *' He  came  f/omt 

[the  ,  .  .Ill  the  hill ;"  *'  They  lifted  him  up  [the  aacent]  out  of  the  pit." 

"Thf  II  !>  ,i.'>ove;" — above  «♦—"  Above  these  lower  A«aren#,  to  us  invisi- 
ble, or  diudy  seen." 

Before  you  proceed  to  correct  the  following  exercises  in  false 
Syntax,  you  may  answer  these 

QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED   IN  PARSING. 

Does  an  adverb  ever  qualify  a  noun  ? — What  parts  of  speech 
does  it  qualify  ? — When  an  adverb  qualifies  a  verb  or  participle, 
what  docs  it  express  ? — When  an  adverb  qualifies  an  adjective 
or  adverb,  what  does  it  generally  express  ? — Compare  some  ad- 
verbs.— By  what  signs  may  an  adverb  be  known  ? — Give  exam- 
ples.— Rej)eat  some  adverbial  phrases. — Name  the  diflbrent 
classes  of  adverbs. — Repeat  some  of  each  class. — Repeat  the 
order  of  parsing  au  adverb. — What  rule  do  you  apply  in  parsing 
an  adverb  ? 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  NOTES. 

Repeat  some  adverbs  that  are  formed  by  combining  prepositions  with  ad- 
verbs of  place. — Rejieat  some  that  are  composed  of  the  article  a  and  nouus. 
—What  i>art  of  S(>eech  are  the  words,  therefore,  consequently,  S:c.l — ^Vhat 
woi-ds  are  slyleil  oitverhial  conjunctioM  7 — Why  are  they  so  called  7 — Is  the 
•amowoiil  '  '■  I  tivo,  and  &' 1       ''  '       '>?— 

Give  exui  '  ? — By  wli  lisb 

an  ailiix;;\  .  ^    -positions  ev 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  PHILOSOPHICAL  NOTES. 

Hmw  does  til.'  use  of  adverbs  contribute  to  the  com  iseuess  of  lanjjuase  ?— 
Ulustrite  the  fart. — What  is  said  of  ly,  like,  and  quick  7 — How  are  the  fol- 
Jnwiuf,'  wonls  cuu»p<>-'"'  -<'■'■""•  /t/,,.,-  .,r,>„  nUn7 — What  is  the  meaning 
of  tt'rr,  nrccr,  not,  r  ly,  atcry  7 — Ttivo   the  sig- 

nification of  n^<*</4, /f  '/.  while,  till,  find  per. 

Note.  Learners  need  not  answer  iho  cjuestiuus  im  the  Philosophical  Notes, 
fci  this  or  any  other  Lecture,  tmless  the  teacher  deem  it  expedient. 


99  lETYMOLOGT  AND  SYNTAX.  j 

EXERCISES  IN  FALSE  SYNTAX.  \ 

NoTt  3,  TO  Rule  29.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  i 
applied  as  adverbs  ;  as,  indifferent  honest ;  excellent  well ;  mis-  j 
erable  poor  : — She  writes  elegant ;  He  is  walking  slow.  ', 

Tho  adjectives  indiferent,  excellent,  and  miserable,  are  here  improperly  i 
used,  because  adjectives  do  not  express  the  degi-ee  of  adjectives  or  adverb?!,  'i 
but  such  modifications  are  denoted  by  adverbs.  The  phrases  shotild,  there-  j 
fore,  be,  "  indifferently  honest,  excellently  well,  miserably  poor."  Elegant  \ 
and  slow  are  also  inaccurate,  for  it  is  not  the  office  of  the  adjective  to  express  ] 
the  manner,  time,  or  place  of  the  action  of  verbs  and  participles,  but  it  is  i 
the  office  of  the  adverb.  The  constructions  should  be,  "  She  writes  elegant.-  \ 
ly;  ■  He  is  walking  slowly.^'  1 

You  may  correct  the  following  examples  several  times  over,  .; 
and  explain  the  principles  that  are  violated.  | 

FALSE  SYNTAX.  I 

He  speaks  fluent,  and  reasons  coherent.  * 

She  roads  proper,  and  writes  very  neat.  ;i 

They  once  lived  tolerable   well,  but  now  they  are  miserable  \ 

poor.  ^  ^  I 

The  lowering  clouds  are  moving  slow.  ;^ 

He  behaved  himself  submissive,  and  was  exceeding  careful  not  j 

to  give  offence.  j 

Note  4,  to  Rule  29.    Adverbs  are  sometimes  improperly  used  ; 

instead  of  adjectives ;  as,  "  The  tutor  addressed  him  in  terms  j 

rather  warm,  but  suitably  to  his  offence."  ■ 

The  adverb  snitably  is  incorrect.  It  does  not  express  the  manner  of  the  \ 
action  of  the  verb  "  addressed,"  but  it  denotes  the  quality  of  the  noun  terms  '\ 
understood  ;  for  whicU  reason  it  should  be  an  adjective,  suitable.  \ 

FALSE  SYNTAX.  i 

The  man  was  slowly  wandering  about,  solitarily  and  distressed.  • 
He  lived  in  a  manner  agreeably  to  his  condition.  ^ 

The  study  of  Syntax  should  be  previously  to  that  of  Punctua-  < 

tion.  ! 

He  introduced  himself  in  a  manner  very  abruptly.  ; 

Conformably  to  their  vehemence  of  thought,  was  their  vehe- 1 

mence  of  gesture.  ' 

I  saw  him  previmt^ly  to  his  arrival.  \ 


PREPOSTTTON8. 


01 


LECTURE  Vn. 

OF   PREPOSITIONS. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  which  serves  to  connect 
words,  and  show  the  relation  between  them. 

The  term  preposition  is  derived  from  the  two  Latin  words,  pre, 
ilfies  before,  and  pono,  to  pince.     Prepositions  are  so 
use  they  are  mostly  j>laced  before  the  nouns  and  pro- 
uouns  w  inch  they  goTern  in  the  objective  case. 

The  principal  prepositions  are  presented  in  the  following  list, 
which  you  may  now  commit  to  memory,  and  thus  you  uill  be  en- 
abled to  distinguish  them  from  other  parts  of  speech  whenever 
V  ou  see  them  in  composition.  « 

HE  PREPOSITIONS. 

lietwixt 
beside 
athwart 
to  wan  U 
notwiihstaudiiig 
out  of 
instead  of 
over  a<rainat 
according  to 

This  list  contains  many  words  that  are  sometimes  used  as  con- 
junctions, and  sometimes  as  adverbs  ;  but  when  you  shall  have 
come  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  preposition,  and  of  the 
njunction  and  adverb  too,  you  will  find  no  diOiculty  in  asccr- 
ining  to  which  of  these  classes  any  word  belongs. 
By  looking  at  the  definition  of  a  preposition,  you  will  notice, 
that  it  performs  a  double  office  in  a  sentence,  namely,  it  connects 
words,  and  also  shows  a  relation  between  them.     I  will  fir^l  show 
Ml  the  use  and  importance  of  this  part  of  speech  as  a  connect- 
■  •\     When  corn  is  ripe — October,  it  is  gathered — the  field— 

PHILOSOPHICAL    NOTES. 

From.  accordin5»  to  H.  Tooke,  is  the  Ar    '     '    -  ■  "^    '  '    no»in/r«»»i, 

JH'triniiiiiLT.  rtoiiire,  author.     "  He  came  /<  >;tcr."     Of 

111.   smqiM^.  s  tm  1),-  a  fragment  of  the  Gt)ih-_    _..  .    -  i.        ;     i;.  -'-fiirfi,  couhiv 

■  'llower.     "  Solomon,  the  son  of  (oJTrpring)  David."     Cf 

a  acceptation,  sijrnifitvH  disjoined,  vtndercd :  A  niece  of 

'-,  a  piece  disjoined,  or  tejutrated  from  the  loaf.     The  fragrance 

»  eatitt.     "  I  write /or  yoor  satisfactifm ;"  i.  e.  your  satisfaction 
i>  "•.     By  or  be  is  the  imperative  bytk,  of  the  Saxon  beon,  to  be. 

H  .  uerative  of  witkan^  to  join :  or,  when  equivalent  to  by,  ol  wyt^ 


A  LIST  OF  THE 

PREPOSITIONS. 

of 

over 

at 

after 

to 

under 

near 

about 

hr 

through 

tip 

against 

bv 

above 

down 

unto 

wilh 

below 

before 

across 

hi 

between 

behind 

around 

failo 

Ixineath 

off 

amidst 

-vithln 

from 

on  upon 

throughout 

:!hout 

beyond 

among 

underneath 

92  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

men — who  go — hill — hill — baskets, — which  ihej  put  the  eai-s. 
You  perceive,  that  in  this  sentence  there  is  a  total  want  of  con- 
nexion and  meaning ;  but  let  us  fill  up  each  vacancy  with  a 
preposition,  and  the  sense  will  be  clear.  "  When  corn  is  ripe,?« 
October,  it  is  gathered  in  the  field  hy  men,  who  go  frofii  hill  to 
hill  7vith  baskets,  i?ito  which  they  put  the  ears." 

From  this  illustration  you  are  convinced,  no  doubt,  that  our 
language  would  be  very  deficient  without  prepositions  to  connect 
the  various  words  of  which  it  is  composed.  It  would,  in  fact, 
amount  to  nothing  but  nonsense.  There  is,  however,  another  part 
of  speech  that  performs  this  office,  namely,  the  conjunction. 
This  will  be  explained  in  Lecture  IX. ;  in  which  lecture  you  will 
learn,  that  the  nature  of  a  preposition,  as  a  connective  particle, 
is  nearly  allied  to  that  of  a  conjunction.  In  the  next  place  I 
will  show  you  how  prepositions  express  a  relation  between 
words.  ♦ 

The  boy's  hat  is  under  his  arm.  In  this  expression,  what 
relation  does  the  preposition  under  show  ?  You  know  that  hat 
and  arm  are  words  used  as  signs  of  two  objects,  or  ideas ;  but 
under  is  not  the  sign  of  a  thing  you  can  think  of:  it  is  merely 
the  sign  of  the  relation  existing  between  the  two  objects.  Hence 
you  may  perceive,  that  since  the  word  under  is  the  sign  of  the 
relation  existing  between  particular  ideas,  it  also  expresses  a  rela- 
tion existing  between  the  words  hat  and  arm,  which  words  are  the 
representatives  of  those  ideas. 

The  boy  holds  his  hat  in  his  hand.  In  this  sentence  the  prcpo 
sition  in  shows  the  relation  existing  between  hat  and  hand,  or  the 
situation,  or  relative  position,  each  has  in  regard  to  the  other.  And, 
if  I  say.  The  boy's  hat  is  on  his  head,  you  perceive  that  on  shows 
the  relation  between  hat  and  head.  Again,  in  the  expressions. 
The  boy  threw  his  hat  up  stairs — under  the  bed — behind  the  ta- 
ble— through  the  window — over  the  house — across  the  street — inlo 
the  water — and  so  on,  you  perceive  that  the  several  prepositions  ex- 

ihan,  to  be.  "  I  will  go  with  him."  "  I,  join  him,  will  go."  In  comes  from 
the  Gothic  noun  itma,  the  interior  of  the  body ;  a  cave  or  cell.  About,  from 
boda,  the  first  outward  boimdary.  Among  is  the  past  part,  of  gamaengan, 
to  mingle.  Through  or  thorough  is  the  Gothic  substantive  dmiro,  or  the 
Teutonic  thuruh.'    It  means  psissage,  gale,  door. 

Before — be-fore,  be-hind,  be-low,  beside,  besides,  be-neatk,  are  formed  by 
combining  the  imperative  be,  with  the  nouns  fore,  hind,  low,  tide,  ncath. 
Neath — Saxon  neothan,  neothe,  has  the  same  signification  as  nadir.  Be-twecn, 
be-twixt — he  and  ijcain.  A  dual  preposition.  Be-yond — be-passed.  Beyond 
a  })lace,  means,  he  passed  that  place. 

NotwilhstaTiding — noistand-ing-witk,  not-withstanding.  "  Any  order  to  the 
contrary  not- withstanding"  (this  order;)  1.  e.  not  effectually  withstanding  or 
opposing  it. 


PREPOsmorcs. — parsing.  W 

press  the  different  relations  existing  between  the  hat  and  the  other 
nouns,  stnirsy  bed,  table f'lpindow,  hoiisey  street,  and  water. 

A  preposition  tells  where  a  thing  is  :  thus,  "  The  pear  is  on  the 
gr  1  ■  r  the  tree." 

r  :s  govern  the  objective  case,  but  they  do  not  express 

ftn  iiciiuii  dune  to  some  object,  as  an  active-transitive  verb  or  par- 
ticiple does.  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  follows  a  preposition,  it 
is  in  the  objective  case,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  relation 
expressed  by  the  preposition,  and  not  the  object  of  an  action. 

I  can  now  give  you  a  more  extensive  explanation  of  the  objec- 
tive case,  than  that  which  was  given  in  a  former  lecture.  I  have 
already  informed  you,  that  the  objective  case  expresses  the  object 
of  an  action  or  of  a  relation ;  and,  also,  that  there  are  three  parts 
of  speech  which  govern  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  objective 
case,  namely,  active-transitive  verbs,  jmrticipfes  derived  from 
transitive  verbs,  and  prepositions.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  cannot  be,  at  the  same  time,  the  object  of  an  action 
and  of  a  relation.  It  must  be  either  the  object  of  an  action  or 
of  a  relation.  And  I  wish  you  particularly  to  remember,  that 
whenever  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  governed  by  a  transitive  verb 
or  participle,  it  is  the  object  of  an  action;  as,  The  tutor 
instructs  liis  pupils  ;  or,  The  tutor  is  ijistrucLing  his  pupils  ;  but 
whenever  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  it  is- 
the  object  of  a  relation;  as,  Th#tutor  gives  good  instruction  to 
''^  pupils. 

.cfore  you  pitxjeed  to  parse  the  following  examples,  please 
1-,  review  this  lecture,  and  then  the  whole  seven  in  tlie  manner 
previously  recommended,  namely,  read  one  or  two  sentences,  and 
then  look  off  your  book  and  repeat  them  two  or  three  limes  over 
m  your  mind.  This  course  will  enable  you  to  retain  the  most 
important  ideas  advanced.  If  you  wish  to  proceed  witii  ease  and 
advantage,  you  must  have  the  subject-matter  of  the  preceding 
lectures  stored  in  your  mind.  Do  not  consider  it  an  unpleasant 
task  to  comply  with  my  requisitions,  for  when  you  shall  have 
learned  thus  far,  you  will  understand  seven  parts  of  speech ;  and 
only  three  more  will  remain  to  be  learned. 

If  you  have  complied  with  the  foregoing  request,  you  may 
commit  the  following  order,  and  then  proceed  in  parsing. 

sysVematic  order  of  parsing. 
The  order  of  parsing  a  Preposition,  is — a  prepo- 
sition, and  why  '( — what  docs  it  connect '? — "  i'?.t  rela- 
tion  does  it  show  ? 


y4  BTYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

"  He  saw  an  antelope  in  the  wilderness.*' 

In  is  a  preposition,  a  word  which  serves  to  connect  words,  and 
show  the  relation  between  them — it  connects  me  words  "  ante- 
lope "  and  "  wilderness  " — and  shows  the  relation  between  them. 

Wilderness  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  place — com.  the  name  of 
a  sort  or  species — neut.  gend.  it  denotes  a  thing  without  sex — 
third  pers.  spoken  of — sing.  num.  it  implies  but  one — and  in  the 
objective  case,  it  is  the  object  of  a  relation  expressed  by  the  pre 
position  "  in,"  and  governed  by  it,  according  to 

Rule  31.     Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

The  genius  of  our  language  will  not  allow  us  to  say,  Stana 
before  he  ;  Hand  the  paper  to  they.  Prepositions  require  the  pro- 
noun  following  them  to  be  in  the  objective  form,  position,  or  case  ; 
and  this  requisition  amounts  to  government.  Hence  we  say, 
"  Stand  before  him  y"  "  Hand  the  paper  to  them.''  Every  pre- 
position expresses  a  relation,  and  every  relation  must  have  an 
object :  consequently,  every  preposition  must  be  followed  by  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Tne  all-wise  Creator  bestowed  the  power  of  speech  upon  man, 
for  the  most  excellent  uses.  Augustus  heard  the  orator  pleading 
'the  client's  cause,  in  a  flow  of  most  powerful  eloquence.  Fair 
'Cynthia  smiles  serenely  over  nature's  soft  repose.  Life's  vary- 
ing schemes  no  more  distract  tne  laboring  mind  of  man.  Septi- 
mius  stabbed  Pompey  standing  on  the  shore  of  Egypt. 

A  beam  of  tranquillity  often  plays  round  the  heart  of  the  truly 
pious  man.  The  thoughts  of  former  years  glide  over  my  soul, 
like  swift-shooting  meteors  over  Ardven's  gloomy  vales. 

At  the  approach  of  day,  night's  swift  dragons  cut  the  clouds 
full  fast ;  and  ghosts,  wandering  here  and  there,  troop  home  to 
church-yards. 

Love  still  pursues  an  ever  devious  race, 
True  to  the  wincfing  lineaments  of  grace. 

Note. — The  words  my  and  and  yoa  need  not  parse.  The  norm  "  meteors," 
following  the  adverb  "  like,"  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  unto 
understood,  according  to  Note  2,  under  Rule  32.  The  noun  "  home"  is 
governed  by  to  understood,  according  to  Rule  32. 

REMARKS  ON  TREPOSITIONS  AND  VERBS. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  is  often  govejtied  by  a  preposl 
tion  undeistood ;  as,  "  Give  him  that  book  ;"  that  is,  "  Give  that  book  to 
him ;"  "  Ortugrul  was  one  day  wandering,"  &c.  that  is,  on  one  day.  "  Mer 
cy  gives  aj/liclion  a  grace ;"  that  is,  Mercy  gives  a  grace  to  affliction.  See 
Note  1,  under  Rule  32. 

To  bo  able  to  make  a  proper  use  of  prepositiohg,  particular  attention  is 
requisite.     Tliere  is  a  peculiar  propriety  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  by  and 


rsoNouirs.  9b 

wiAt  M,  "  Ho  w»Iki  mttk  a  RUiff  by  mtKinlight ;"  "  lie  was  takcu  by  strata 
gem,  aiiU  killed  with  a  swonl."  Put  tho  one  preiK>sitiun  for  tlio  other,  and 
«iy,  "  Ho  walk«  by  a  utafl'inM  moonlight ;"  •'  He  was  taken  wilh  Htratncem, 
auJ  killetl  by  a  swonl ;"  and  it  will  aprx^ur,  that  the  latter  expreHsion^it  ditl'cr 
from  the  former  iu  siguifkatiou,  more  tnau  ooe,  at  lint  view,  would  be  apt 
to  imagine. 

VerM  are  often  compounded  of  a  verb  and  a  preposition ;  as,  to  uphold,  to 
«»/Astaiid,  to  oorrlook ;  and  this  composition  ^ives  a  new  meaning  to  the 
verb;  as,  to  undrmtami,  to  tn'Mdraw,  to /wgive.  But  the  prejxJBitiou  is 
more  fri..  '  VicL-d  after  tlie  verb,  aiul  separately  fn)m  it,  like  an  ad- 
verb;  ill  iiliou  it  does  not  lean  uH'ect  the  8ens«?  of  the  v«!rb,  mui 
give  it  a  1  "g  ;  and  in  all  instances,  whether  the  prejM)8iLion  is  placed 
either  before  or  after  the  verb,  if  it  gives  a  new  meaning  U)  the  verb,  it  may 
be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  verb.  Thus,  to  east  means  to  throv;  but  to 
east  vp  an  account,  signifies  to  compute  it ;  tlierefore  u;?  is  a  part  of  the  verb 
The  phni-ses,  to  fall  on,  to  hear  out,  to  give  over,  convey  very  different  mean- 
ings fn»m  what  they  would  if  the  prepositions  on,  out,  and  over,  were  not 
oaed.'    Verbs  of  this  kuid  are  called  compound  verbs. 

You  may  now  answer  the  following 

QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN  PARSING. 

From  what  words  is  the  term  preposition  derived  ? — Why  is  r 
thus  named  ? — Repeat  the  list  of  prcjKjsitions. — Name  the  three 
parts  of  s{>eech  that  govern  noiuis  and  pronouns  in  the  objective 
case. — When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  the 
object  of  an  action  ? — When  is  it  the  object  of  a  relation  ? — 
Repeal  the  order  of  parsing  a  preposition. — What  rule  do  you 
apply  in  parsing  a  noun  or  pronoun  governed  by  a  preposition  ? — 
Does  every  pre|X)sition  require  an  objective  case  after  it  ? — Is  a 
noun  or  pronoun  ever  governed  by  a  preposition  understood  ? — 
Give  examples. — What  is  said  of  verbs  compounded  of  a  verb 
•nd  preposition  ? — Give  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  prejwsi- 
lions  explained  in  the  Philosophical  Notes. 


LECTURE  Vm. 
OF  PRONOUNS. 


A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  and 
generally  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the 
same  word.  A  pronoun  is,  likewise,  sometimes  a 
substitute  for  a  sentence,  or  member  of  a  sentence. 

The  word  pronoun  comes  from  the  two  Latin  words,  prOf  which 
mransyar,  or  instead  of,  and  nomen,  a  wame,  or  noun.     Hence 


96  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

you  perceive,  tliat  pronoun  means  for  a  noun,  or  instead  of  a 
noun. 

In  the  sentence,  ''  Tlie  man  is  happy ;  he  is  benevolent ;  he  is 
nseful ;"  you  perceive,  that  the  word  Ae  is  used  instead  of  thn 
noun  man;  consequently  he  must  be  a  pronoun.  You  observe, 
too,  that,  by  making  use  of  the  pronoun  he  in  this  sentence,  we. 
avoid  the  repetition  of  the  noun  man,  for  without  the  pronoun,  the 
sentence  Would  be  rendered  thus,  "  The  man  is  happy  ;  the  man 
is  benevolent ;  the  mafi  is  useful." 

By  looking  again  at  the  definition,"  you  will  notice,  that  pro- 
nouns always  stand  for  nouns,  but  they  do  not  always  avoid  the 
repetition  of  nouns.     Repetition  means  repeating  or  mentioning 
the  same  thing  again.     In  the  sentence,  "  I  come  to  die  for  my 
country,"  the  pronouns,  J  and  my,  stand  for  the  name  of  the  per- 
son who  speaks ;  but  they  do  not  avoid  the  repetition  of  that  name, 
because  the  name  or  noun  for  which  the  pronouns  are  used,  is    j 
not   mentioned  at  all.     Pronouns  of  the  third  person,  generally   -^ 
avoid  the  repetition  of  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand  ;   but  pro-    ^ 
nouns  of  the  first  and  second  person,  sometimes  avoid  the  repeti-    ; 
tion  of  nouns,  and  sometimes  they  do  not.  > 

A  little  farther  illustration  of  the  pronoun  will  show  you  its  \ 
importance,  and,  also,  that  its  nature  is  very  easily  comprehendea.  \ 
'f  we  had  no  pronouns  in  our  language,  we  should  be  obliged  to  1 
express  ourselves  in  this  manner :  "  A  woman  went  to  a  man, 
and  told  the  man  that  the  man  was  in  danger  of  being  murdered  ; 
by  a  gang  of  robbers ;  as  a  gang  of  robbers  had  made  prepara-  j 
tions  for  attacking  the  man.  The  man  thanked  the  woman  for  j 
the  woman's  kindness,  and,  as  the  man  w^as  unable  to  defend  i 
the  man's  self,  the  man  left  the  man's  house,  and  went  to  S  ; 
neighbor's."  \ 

This  would  be  a  laborious  .style  indeed  ;  but,  by  the  help  of  ; 
pronouns,  we  can  express  the  same  ideas  with  far  greater  ease  | 
and  conciseness :  "  A  woman  went  to  a  man,  and  told  him,  that  ^ 
he  was  in  great  danger  of  being  murdered  by  a  gang  of  robbers,  \ 
who  had  made  preparations  for  attacking  him.  He  thanked  her  for  ^ 
her  kindness,  and,  as  lie  was  unable  to  defend  himself  he  left  his  j 
house  and  went  to  a  neighbor's."  '\ 

If  you  look  at  these  examples  a  few  moments,  you  cannot  be  ■ 
at  a  loss  to  tell  which  words  are  pronouns ;  and  you  will  observe,  -i 
too,  that  they  all  stand  for  nouns.  1 

Pronouns  are  generally  divided  into  three  kinds>  ^ 
the  Personal,  the  Adjective,  and  the  Relative  pro-  .- 
nouns.  .  They  are  all  known  by  the  lists.  \ 


PERSONAL    PEONOtTNS.  HT 

1.  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

Personal  Pronouns  are  distinguished  from  the 
relative,  hy  their  denoting  the  person  of  the  nouns 
for  which  they  stand.  There  are  five  of  them ;  /, 
thou,  he,  she,  it ;  with  their  plurals,  We,  ye  or  you, 
they. 

To  pronouns  belong  gender,  person,  number,  and 
case. 

Gender.  When  we  speak  of  a  man,  we  say,  lie,  his,  him  ; 
when  we  speak  of  a  woman,  Wc  say,  she,  hers,  her  ;  and  when  we 
speak  of  a  thing,  we  say  /'/.  Hence  you  perceive,  that  gender 
belongs  to  pronouns  as  well  as  to  nouns.  Example  ;  "  The  gen- 
eral, in  gratitude  to  the  lady,  offered  her  his  hand  ;  but  she^ 
not  knowing  him,  declined  accepting  it."  The  pronouns  his  and 
him,  in  this  sentence,  personate  or  represent  the  noun  general ; 
they  are,  therefore,  of  the  masculine  gender :  her  and  she  per- 
sonate the  lady  ;  therefore,  they  are  feminine  :  and  it  represents 
hand  ;  for  which  reason  it  is  of  the  neuter  gender.  This  illus- 
tration shows  you,  then,  that  pronouns  must  be  of  the  same  gen- 
der as  the  nouns  are  for  which  they  stand.  But,  as  it  relates  to 
the  variation  of  the  pronouns  to  express  the  sex, 

Gender  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person  sin- 
gular of  the  pronouns,  he,  she,  it.  He  is  ma.sculine; 
she  is  feminine ;  it  is  neuter. 

You  may  naturally  inquire,  why  pronouns  of  the  first  and 
second  persons  are  not  varied  to  denote  the  gender  of  their  nouns, 
as  well  as  of  the  third.  The  reason  is  obvious.  The  first  per- 
son, that  is,  the  person  speaking,  and  the  second  person,  or  the 
person  spoken  to,  being  at  the  same  time  the  subjects  of  the  dis- 
course, are  supposed  to  be  present ;  from  which,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances, their  sex  is  commonly  known,  and,  therefore,  the 
pronouns  that  represent  these  persons,  need  not  be  marked  by  a 
distinction  of  gender;  but  the  thircf  person,  that  is,  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  of,  being  absent,  and  in  many  respects  unknown, 
necessarily  requires  the  pronoun  that  stands  for  it,  to  bo  marked^ 
oy  a  distinction  of  gender. 

In  j>arsing,  we  sometimes  apply  gender  to  pronouns  of  the  first 
and  second  persdn,  and  also  to  the  plurai  number  of  the  third 
person  ;  but  these  have  no  peculiar  form  to  denote  their  gender; 
thin  fire  they  have  no  agreement,  in  this  respect,  with  the  nouna 
wWkU  they  reoresent. 


98  ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

Person.  Pronouns  have  three  persons  in  each 
number. 

/,  is  the  first  person  ^ 

Thou,  is  the  second  person  >  Singular, 

He,  she,  or  it,  is  the  third  person  ) 

We,  is  the  first  person  ^ 

Ye  or  you,  is  the  second  person      >  Plural. 

They,  is  the  third  person  J 

This  account  of  persons  will  be  very  intelligible,  when  you 
leflect,  that  there  are  three  persons  who  may  be  the  subject  of 
any  discourse :  first,  the  person  who  speaks,  may  speak  of  him- 
self; secondly,  he  may  speak  of  the  person  to  whom  he  addresses 
himself;  thirdly,  he  may  speak  of  some  other  person  ;  and  as  the 
speakers,  the  persons  spoken  to,  and  the  persons  spoken  of,  may 
be  many,  so  each  of  these  persons  must  have  a  plural  number. 

Pronouns  of  the  second  and  third  person,  always  agree  in  per- 
son with  the  nouns  they  represent ;  but  pronouns  of  the  first  per- 
son, do  not.  Whenever  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person  is  used,  it 
represents  a  noun  ;  but  nouns  are  never  of  the  first  person,  there- 
fore these  pronouns  cannot  agree  in  person  with  their  nouns. 

Number.  Pronouns,  like  nouns,  have  two  num- 
bers, the  singular  and  the  plural ;  as,  /,  thou,  he  ;  we, 
ye  or  you,  they. 

Case.  Pronouns  have  three  cases,  the  nominative, 
the  possessive,  and  the  objective. 

In  the  next  place  I  will  present  to  you  the  declension  of  the 
personal  pronouns,  which  declension  you  must  commit  to  mem- 
ory before  you  proceed  any  farther. 

The  advantages  resulting  from  the  committing  of  the  follow, 
ing  declension,  are  so  great  and  diversified,  that  you  cannot  be 
too  particular  in  your  attention  to  it.  You  recollect,  that  it  is 
sometimes  very  difficult  to  distinguish  the  nominative  case  of  a 
noun  from  the  objective,  because  these  cases  of  nouns  are  not 
marked  by  a  difference  in  termination  ;  but  this  difficulty  is  re- 
moved in  regard  to  the  personal .  pronouns,  for  their  cases  are 
always  known  by  their  termination.  By  studying  the  declension 
you  will  learn,  not  only  the  cases  of  the  pronour  s,  but,  also,  their 
genders,  persons,  and  numbers. 


PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  99 

DECLENSION  OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

FIRST  PERSON. 

Sing.  Plur, 

Norn.  I,  '  we, 

Poss,  my  or  mine,  our  or  ours, 

Obj,    me.  us. 

SECOND  PERSON. 

Sing,  Plur, 

Norn,  thou,  ye  or  you, 

Poss.  thy  or  thine,  your  or  yours 

Obj,  '  thee.  you. 

THIRD  PERSON. 

Mas.  Sing,  Plur. 

Norn,  he,  they, 

Poss.  his,  their  or  theirs 

06/.    him.  them. 

THIRD   PERSON. 

Fern.  Sing.  Plur. 

Nom.  she,  they, 

Poss.  her  or  hers,  their  or  theirs, 

Obj.  her.  them. 

THIRD   PERSON. 

Neut.  Sing,  Plur. 

Nom.  it,  they, 

Poss.  its,  their  or  theirs, 

Obj.    it.  them. 

NOTES. 

J.  When  $el/  is  added  to  the  poFBonal  pronouns,  as  himself,  myself,  itself, 
themselvos,  &c.  thev  are  called  compound  personal  pronontu,  and  are  used  in 
the  nnm illative  or  objective  case,  but  not  in  the  possessive. 

2.  In  order  to  avoid  the  disagreeable  harshness  of  sound,  occasioned  by  the 
freauent  recurrence  of  the  terminations  est,  edst,  in  the  adaptation  of  our 
verbs  to  tlio  nominative  thou,  a  modem  innovation  which  substitutes  yon  for 
thou,  ill  Ikmiliar  style,  has  generally  been  adopted.  This  innovation  contri- 
butes greatly  to  the  harmony  of  our  collojyiinl  style.  You  was  fiirmerly  re- 
stricted Vj  the  plural  number ;  but  now  it  is  employed  to  represent  either 
a  singular  or  a  plural  noun.  It  ou^ht  to  be  recollected,  however,  that  when 
used  as  the  representative  of  a  smgular  noun,  this  word  retains  its  origbal 
plural  form;  aud,  therefore,  the  verb  connected  with  it,  should  always  be 


100  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

])lural.  Inattention  to  this  peculiarity,  ha«  betrayed  some  writers  into  the 
enoneous  conclusion,  that,  because  you  implies  unity  when  it  represents  a 
singular  noun,  it  ought,  when  thus  employed,  to  be  followed  by  a  singular 
vem  ;  as,  **  When  toas  you  there  ?"  "  How  far  vat  you  from  the  parties  7" 
Such  a  construction,  however,  is  not  supported  by  good  usage,  nor  by  analo- 
gy. It  is  an  manifest  a  solecism  as  to  say.  We  am,  or  we  »*.  Were  it,  in  any 
case.  mlnuKsiblc  to  connect  a  singular  verb  with  you,  tho  ufs«»  of  mas  would 
Blill  be  ungrammatical,  for  this  form  of  the  verb  is  confmed  to  the  tirst  and 
third  jx'rsons,  and  you  is  second  person.  Watt  being  second  person,  it  would 
approximate  nearer  to  correctness  to  say,  you  watt.  We  never  use  the  sin- 
gtilar  of  the  j>resent  tense  with  you:— you  art,  you  it;  you  walkest,  yoji 
walks.  Why,  then,  should  any  attempt  be  made  to  force  a  usage  so  unnatural 
and  gratuitous  as  the  connecting  of  ihe  singular  verb  in  the  past  tense  with 
tliis  pronoun  t  In  every  point  of  view,  tlie  construction,  "  When  were  you 
there  7"     "  How  far  were  you  from  the  {tarties  7"  is  preferable  to  the  other. 

3.  The  words  my,  thy,  hit,  her,  our,  your,  their,  are,  by  many,  denominated 
potsessive  adjective  pronount;  but  they  always  ttandfor  nouns  ift  the  posses* 
sive  case.  They  ought,  therefore,  to  be  classed  with  the  personal  pronouns. 
That  nrinciple  of  classification  which  ranks  them  with  the  adjective  pronouns, 
would  also  thniw  all  nouus  in  the  possessive  case  among  the  adjectives. 
Example :  **  The  lady  gave  the  gentleman  her  watch  for  his  horse."  In  this 
sentence  her  personates,  or  stands  for,  the  noun  "  lady,"  and  his  represents 
"  sentlemau."  This  fact  is  clearly  shown  by  rendering  the  sentence  thus, 
"  The  lady  gave  the  gentleman  the  lady't  watch  for  the  genileman's  horse." 
If  lady^t  and  gentiemarCt  are  noims,  her  and  his  must  be  personal  pronouns. 
The  same  remarks  apply  to  my,  thy,  our,  your,  <Aetr,and  its.  This  view  of 
those  woitls  may  be  objected  to  by  those  who  spectilate  and  refine  upon  the 
principles  of  grammar  until  they  prove  their  non-existence,  but  it  is  believed, 
nevertheless,  to  be  based  on  sound  reason  and  common  sense. 

4.  Mine,  thine,  hit,  hers,  ovrt,  yourt,  theirt,  have,  by  many  respectable 
grammarians,  been  considered  merely  the  possessive  cases  of  personal  pro- 
nouns, whilst,  by  others,  they  have"  been  denominated  pronoims  or  nouns  in 
Ihe  nominative  or  objective  case.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  a  little  atten- 
tion to  the  meaning  and  office  of  these  words,  will  clearly  show  the  impro- 
priety of  both  these  classifications.  Those  who  pursue  the  former  arrange- 
ment, allege,  that,  in  the  examples,  "  You  may  imagine  what  kind  of  faith 
theirs  was;  My  pleasures  are  past;  hers  and  yours  are  to  come;  they  ap- 
plaudetl  his  conduct,  but  condemned  hers  and  yours,"  the  words  theirs,  hers, 
and  yours,  are  personal  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case,  and  governed  by 
their  respective  nouns  understood.  To  prove  this,  they  construct  the  sen- 
tence thus,  "  You  may  imagine  what  kind  of  faith  their  faith  was ; — her 
pleasures  and  yoitr  pleasures  are  to  come; — but  condemned  her  conduct  and 
your  conduct;"  or  thus,  "  You  may  imagine  what  kind  of  faith  the  faith  of 
them  was ; — the  pleasures  of  her  and  the  pleasures  of  you,  are  to  come  ;— 
but  condemned  the  conduct  of  her  and  the  conduct  of  you."  But  these  con- 
structions, (both  of  which  are  correct,)  prove  too  much  for  their  purpose; 
for,  as  soon  as  we  supply  the  nouns  after  these  words,  they  are  resolved  into 
personal  pronouns  of  kindred  meaning,  and  the  nouns  which  we  supply : 
thus  'heirs  becomes,  their  faith  :  hers,  her  pleasures  ;  and  yours,  your  pleas- 
ures. This  evidently  gives  us  two  words  mstead  of,  and  altogether  distinct 
from,  the  first;  so  that,  in  parsing,  f heir  faith,  we  are  not,  in  reality,  analy- 
zing theirs,  but  two  other  words  of  which  theirs  is  the  proper  representa- 
tive. These  remarks  also  prove,  with  equal  force,  the  impropriety  of  calling 
these  words  merely  simple  pronoims  or  noiuis  in  the  nominative  or  objective 
^ase      Without  attempting  to  develop  the  original  or  intrinsic  meaning  of 


PERSONAL    rKONOUNS.-^PA^SlNG.  Itil 

dieae  nluraltzing  adjuncts,  ne  and  a,  which  were,  no  doubt,  formerly  detached 
from  tL  >  with  which  they  now  coalesce,  for  all  practical  {mrposos, 

it  iji  hi  lis  to  know,  that,  in  the  present  a|)j)lic&lionof lhebc'iii«>- 

DonnM,  ;  lUly  Ktand  for,  not  only  the  j>ert>on  j»os»e»«*ing,  but,  also  llie 

thing  {HiHMeittiol,  which  gives  them  a  compound  character.  They  may.  thore- 
ft>re,  be  properly  denominated  Compound  I'krsonal  Pronouns;  and,  us 
they  always  {terfonn  a  double  office  in  a  sentence  by  representing  two 
otlier  worilrt,  anil,  conwHjuently,  including  two  cjises,  they  should,  like  the 
compound  relative  whiit,  be  parsed  a«  two  words.  Thus,  in  the  example, 
'•You  may  imagine  what  kind  of  faith  theirs  was,"  theirs  is  a  comjMjund  per- 
sonal nruuoun,  equivalent  to  their  faith.  Their  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used 
instead  of  a  noun ;  jx^rsfjual,  it  personates  the  jMirsons  B]>oken  of,  understood ; 
thinl  pers.  plur.  numb.,  &c. — and  in  the  jKJSsessive  case,  and  govei-ned  by 
*'  faith,"  acconling  to  Rule  12.  Faith  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  thing,  &c. 
Sic. — and  in  the  nominative  case  to  "  was,"  and  governs  it ;  Rule  3.  Or,  if 
we  render  the  sentence  thus,  "  You  may  imagnie  what  kind  of  fuith  the 
faith  of  them*  vf an,"  faith  would  be  in  the  nominative  cjise  to  "  was,"  and 
them  would  be  in  the  objective  case,  and  gfjvemed  by  "of:"  Rule  31. 

Objections  to  this  method  of  treating  these  pronouns,  will  doubtless  bo 
preferred  by  those  who  assert,  that  a  noun  is  understood  after  these  words, 
and  not  represented  by  them.  But  this  is  assertion  without  proof;  for,  if  a 
noun  were  understiHHl.  it  might  be  supplied.  If  the  question  be  put,  whose 
book  T  and  the  answer  be,  mine,  our$,  hers,  or  theirs,  the  word  book  is  inclu- 
ded in  such  answer.  Were  it  not  included,  we  might  supply  it,  thus,  mine 
book,  ours  book,  hers  book,  and  so  on.  This,  however,  we  cannot  do,  for  it 
would  be  giving  a  double  answer:  but  when  the  question  is  answered  by  a 
noun  in  the  possessive  case,  the  word  book  is  not  included,  but  implied  ;  as, 
Whose  book  T     John's,  Richard's;  that  is,  John's  book;  Richard's  book. 

This  view  of  the  subject,  without  a  parallel,  except  in  the  compounds  wkal, 
whoever,  and  others,  is  re8|)ectfully  sul>mitted  to  the  public ;  believing,  that 
those  who  ap|)rove  of  a  critical  analysis  of  words,  will  coincide  with  nie. 
Should  any  still  be  disiKtsed  to  treat  these  words  so  superficially  as  to  rank 
tliem  among  the  simple  pronouns,  let  them  answer  the  folio  whig  interroga- 
t*>ry:  If  what,  when  compound,  should  be  parsed  as  two  words,  why  not 
mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs  f 

a.  Aline  and  thine,  instead  of  my  and  thy,  are  used  in  solemn  style,  before, 
a  word  beginning  with  a  rowel  or  silent  A;  as,  **  Blot  out  all  mine  miquilies;" 
and  when  thus  used,  they  are  not  compound.  7/m  always  has  the  s^me 
form,  whether  simple  or  compound  ;  as,  **  Give  John  his  book  ;  That  desk  is 
Ai«."  Her,  when  j>laced  before  a  noun,  is  in  the  possessive  case;  a».  Take 
&<rhat:  when  standing  alone,  it  is  in  tlie  objective  case  ;  as,  Give  tlie  hat  to  Acr 

When  you  shall  have  studied  this  lecture  attentively,  and  com- 
iTiitted  the  declension  of  the  personal  pronouns,  you  may  commit 
the  following 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  a  Personal  Pronoun,  is — a 

•  In  the  not«  next  preceding,  it  is  as.«w5rted,  tliat  my,  thy.  his,  her,  our, 
your, and  their, are  personal  pnmouns.     What  can  more  clearly  denionstnite 

the  cfirrectness  of  tlmt  assertion,  than  th'     " '  *"  •'      w  y.] 

theirs  T     AH  admit,  tliat,  in  the  constnu  ti 

(A^m  is  a  personal  pronoun:  ind  for  this  t  <«  r.i  ii 


1 02  ETYMo^oGy  and  stntai. 

pronoun,  and  why? — personal,  and  why? — person, 
and  why? — gender  and  number,  and  why? — Rule: 
case,  and  why  ? — Rule. — Decline  it. 

There  are  many  peculiarities  to  be  observed  in  parsing  per- 
sonal pronouns  in  their  different  persons  ;  therefore,  if  you  wish 
ever  to  parse  them  correctly,  you  must  pay  particular  attention 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  following  are  analyzed.  Now  notice, 
particularly,  and  you  will  perceive  that  we  apply  only  one  fu\e 
in  pai'sing  /  and  mpt  and  two  in  parsing  thoUj  hinij  and  they. 
"/saw  my  friend." 

/  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal,  it 
represents  the  person  speaking,  understood — first  person,  it  de- 
notes the  speaker — singular  number,  it  implies  but  one — and  in 
the  nominative  case,  it  represents  the  actor  and  subject  of  the 
verb  "  saw,"  and  governs  it,  agreeably  to  Rule  3.  The  nom, 
ease  gov.  the  verb.  Declined — first  pers.  sing.  num.  nom.  I,  poss. 
my  or  mine,  obj.  me.     Plur.  nom.  we,  poss.  our  or  ours,  obj.  us. 

My  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal,  it 
personates  the  person  speaking,  understood — first  pers.  it  denotes 
the  speaker — sing.  num.  it  implies  but  one — and  in  the  possessive 
case,  it  denotes  possession ;  it  is  governed  by  the  noun  '*  friend," 
agreeably  to  Rule  12.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  casey 
is  governed  by  t/ie  noun  it  possesses.  Declined — first  pers.  sing, 
nom.  I,  poss.  my  or  mine,  obj.  me.  Plur.  nom.  we,  poss.  our  or 
ours,  obj.  us. 

"  Young  man,  thou  hast  deserted  thy  companion,  and  lefl  him  in 
distress." 

Thou  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal, 
it  personates  "  man " — second  person,  it  represents  the  person 
spoken  to — mas.  gend.  sing.  num.  because  the  noun  "man"  is 
for  which  it  stands,  according  to 

Rule  13.  Personal  pronouns  must  agree  vrith  the  nouns  for 
which  tliey  stand  in  gender  and  number. 

Thou  is  in  the  nom.  case,  it  represents  the  actor  and  subject  of 
the  verb  "  hast  deserted,"  and  governs  it  agreeably  to  Rule  3. 
The  nom.  case  governs  the  verb.  Declined — sec.  pers.  sing.  num. 
nom.  thou,  poss.  thy  or  thine,  obj.  thee.  Plur.  nom.  ye  oi  you, 
poss.  your  or  yours,  obj.  you. 

Him  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal,  it 
personates  "  companion" — third  pers.   it  represents  the   person 

noun  understood.  What,  then,  is  their,  in  the  phrase,  '*  their  faith  ?"  Is  it 
not  obvious,  that,  if  them  is  a  personal  pronoun,  their  must  be,  also  T  for  the 
latter  represents  the  same  noun  as  the  former. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. PARSING.  103 

spoken  of — mas.  gend.  sing.  num.  because  the  noun '  conr)panion" 
is  for  wliich  it  stands :  Rul£  13.  Pers.  pro.  ^c.  (Ropeat  the 
Rule.) — Hi7n  is  in  the  objective  case,  the  object  of  the  actiou 
expressed  by  the  active.ti€nsitive  verb  "  hast  left,''  and  gov.  by 
it :  Rule  20.  Active-trans,  verbs  gov.  the  ohj.  case.  Declined — 
third  pers.  mas.  gend.  sing.  num.  nom.  he,  poss.  his,  obj.  him. 
Plur.  nom.  they,  poss.  their  or  theirs,  obj.  them. 

"  Thrice  I  raised  my  voice,  and  called  the  chiefs  to  combat; 
but  they  dreaded  the  force  of  my  arm." 

They  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal,  it 
represents  "  chiefs" — third  pers.  it  denotes  the  persons  spoken  of — 
mas.  gend.  plur.  num.  because  the  noun  "chiefs"  is  for  which  it 
stands:  Rule  13.  Pers.  Pron.  SfC.  (Repeat  the  Rule.)  It  is 
the  nom.  case,  it  represents  the  actors  and  subject  of  the  verb 
"dreaded,"  and  governs  it:  Rule  3.  The  noni.  case  j  gov.  Uie 
verb.  Declined — third  pers.  mas.  gend.  sing.  num.  nom.  he, 
poss.  his,  obj.  him.  Plur.  nom.  they,  poss.  their  or  theirs,  obj. 
them. 

NoTF.  We  do  not  apply  gender  in  parsing  the  personal  pronouns,  ^ex- 
cepting the  third  person  singular,)  if  the  nouns  they  represent  are  imuer- 
Btood  r  and  therefore  we  do  not,  in  such  instances,  apply  Rule  13,  But  when 
the  noun  is  expressed,  gender  should  be  applied,  and  two  Rules. 

EXERCISES  IN*  PARSING. 

I  saw  a  man  leading  his  horse  slowly  over  the  new  bridge. 
My  friends  visit  me  very  often  at  my  father's  office.  We  im- 
prove ourselves  by  close  application.  Horace,  thou  leamest 
many  lessons.  Charles,  you,  by  your  diligence,  make  easy  work 
of  the  task  given  you  by  your  preceptor.  Young  ladies,  you  run 
over  your  lessons  very  carelessly.  The  stranger  drove  his  horses 
too  far  into  the  water,  and,  in  so  doing,  he  drowned  them. 

Gray  morning  rose  in  the  east.  A  green  narrow  vale  appeared 
before  us:  its  winding  stream  murmured  through  the  grove. 
The  dark  host  of  Rothmar  stood  on  its  banks  with  their  glittering 
spears.  We  fought  along  the  vale.  They  fled.  Rothmar  sunk 
beneath  my  sword.  Day  was  descending  in  the  west,  when  I 
brought  his  arms  to  Crothar.  The  aged  hero  felt  them  with  his 
hands :  joy  brightened  his  thoughts. 

Note.  Horace,  Charles,  and  ladiet,  are  of  the  second  person,  and  nom. 
case  indrpendent :  see  Rulk  5,  and  Notk.  The  first  you  is  nsed  in  the  nom. 
poss.  and  ohj.  case.— -It  represents  Charles,  therefore  it  is  singular  iu  sense. 

h1'' '    " '  — '  ■■■  *"— r       T"  •'■  ■  -  :— •  -• — imple,  you  personifies  In^'-   *' 

fi  iple.      FoM  following  L 

er  :k  1,  under  Rule  32.     A'.  ^ 

cunt|M>uuil  verb,     ^l/tci  U  u  cuujuuciiun.     The  first  t/«  personates  vale;  the 
second  its  represents  stream. 


104  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

You  may  now  parse  the  following  examples  thr,  o  times  over. 
COMPOUND   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 
"Juliet,  retain  her  paper,  ar^  present  yours.'' 

Yours  is  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  representing  both  the 
possessor  and  the  thing  possessed,  and  is  equivalent  to  your  j^c^per. 
Your  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal.,  it 
personates  "Juliet" — second  person,  it  represents  the  person  spo- 
ken to — fern,  gender,  sing,  number,  (singular  in  sense,  but  plural 
in  form,)  because  the  noun  Juliet  is  for  which  it  stands :  Rule 
13.  Pers.  Pron.  SfC. —  Your  is  in  the  possessive  case,  it  denotes 
possession,  and  is  governed  by  "  paper,"  according  to  Rule  12. 
A  noun  or  pron.  SfC.  (Repeat  the  Rule,  and  decline  the  pro- 
noun.) Paper  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  thing — common,  the 
name  of  a  sort  of  things — neuter  gender,  it  denotes  a  thing  with- 
out sex — third  person,  spoken  of — sing,  number,  it  implies  but 
one — and  in  the  obj.  case,  it  is  the  object  of  the  action  expressed 
by  the  transitive  verb  "present,"  and  governed  by  it:  Rule  20. 
Active-transitive  verbs  govern  the  ohj.  case. 

Note.  Should  it  be  objected,  that  yours  does  not  mean  your  paper,  any 
more  than  it  means  your  book,  your  house,  your  any  thing,  let  it  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  pronouns  have  no  definite  meaning,  like  other  words ;  but  their 
particular  signification  is  always  dej;ermined  by  the  nouns  they  represent. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Julia  injured  her  book,  and  soiled  mine :  hers  is  better  than 
mine.  My  friend  sacrificed  his  fortune  to  secure  yours :  his 
deeds  deserve  reward;  yours  merit  disgrace.  Henry's  labors 
are  past ;  thine  are  to  come.  We  leave  your  forests  of  beasts 
for  ours  of  men.     My  sword  and  yours  are  kin. 

NoTB.  She  understood,  is  nominative  to  soiled,  in  the  first  exanj]>le  ;  and 
the  substantive  part  oi  mine,  after  than,  is  nom.  to  is,  understood  :  Rule  35. 
The  verbs  to  secure  and  to  come  have  no  nominative.  The  pronouns  mine, 
my,  yours,  thine,  we,  your,  ours,  my,  and  yours,  personate  nouns  understood. 

REMARKS  ON  IT. 

For  the  want  of  a  proper  knowledge  of  this  little  pronoun  it,  many  gram- 
marians have  been  greatly  puzzled  how  to  dispose  of  it,  or  how  to  account 
for  its  multiform,  and,  seemingly,  contradictor)'  characters.  It  is  in  great 
demand  by  wrriters  of  every  description.  They  use  it  without  ceremony ; 
either  in  the  nomiuative  or  objective  case ;  either  to  represent  one  person  or 
thing,  or  more  than  one.  It  is  applied  tfi  noims  in  the  masculine,  femuiiue, 
or  neuter  gender,  and,  very  frequently,  it  represents  a  member  of  a  sentence, 
a  whole  sentence,  or  a  number  of  sentences  taken  in  a  mass. 

A  little  attention  to  its  true  character,  will,  at  once,  strip  it  of  all  its  mys- 
tery. It.  formerly  wTitten  hit,  according  to  H.  Tooke,  is  the  past  paiticiple 
of  the  Moeso-Gothic  verb  haitan.  It  means,  the  said,  a«d,  therefore,  like  its. 
near  relative  that,  meaning,  the  assumed,  originally  had  no  respect,  in  its  ap- 
plication, to  number,  person,  or  gender.     "  /i  is  a  wholesome  law  ;"  i.  e.  the 


▲DJSCTIYI   PROMOUNS.  llt't 

$md  (Inw)  iii  a  wlioleioine  law ;  or,  tJkat  (law)  is  a  wholesome  1h\<^  -ifu  ,.»• 
tumc  '"  1  -  ;i  wholesome  law.  "  /Jl  in  the  man  ;  I  believe  ii  t«»  he  them  :" 
— //.  li)  is  the  man  ;  that  (man)  is  the  man  :  I  h«4leve  the  said  (pt^t 

Boa&)  : .:.ciu;  I  believe  <A<i/ perwms  (a<cording  U)  the  ancient  applica' 

tkm  ot'  thai)  to  be  them.  **  It  happened  on  a  Hummer's  day,  that  many  peuplu 
were  aMembled,"  &c.— Many  people  were  at^aembled  :  U,  that,  ur  the  taid 
(£tct  or  circumstance)  hupi)eu«d  on  a  sumuier'H  duy. 

iZ,  according  to  its  accepttnl  meaning;  in  modern  times,  is  not  refeired  to  a 
noun  understiKxl  after  it,  l)iit  is  considered  a  substitute.  "  How  is  it  with 
you  t"  that  is.  How  is  your  state  or  condition  /"  "  //  rains  ;  //  freezes ;  //  ia 
a  hard  winter ;" —  The  rain  rains ;  The  frost  froHta  or  freezes  ;  The  said  (  win- 
ter) is  a  hard  winter.  *'  It  is  delightful  to  see  brothers  and  8iste!~s  living  in 
unintemipted  love  tt»  tlie  end  of  their  days."  What  is  delightful  ?  To  set 
brothers  and  sisters  living  in  vnintermifted  love  to  the  end  of  their  days.  It, 
this  thing,  is  delightful.  //,  then,  stands  for  all  tliat  part  of  the  sentence  ex- 
pressed in  italics;  and  the  sentence  will  admit  of  the  followuis  cimstrucUon ; 
"  To  see  brothers  living  in  uniuterruptcd  love  to  the  end  of  their  days,  is 
delightful." 

OF  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

Adjective   Pronouns,   Pronominal  Adjectives, 

or,  more  properly,  Specifying  Adjectives,  are  a  kind 

of  adjectives  which  point  out  nouns  by  some  distinct 

specification. 

,  Pronouns  and  adjectives  are  totally  distinct  in  their  character. 
The  former  stand  for  nouns,  and  never  belong  to  them ;  the 
latter  belong  to  nouns,  and  never  stand  for  them.  Hence,  such  a 
thing  as  an  adjectloe-pronoun  cannot  exist.  Each^  every,  either, 
this,  that,  some,  other,  and  the  residue,  are  pure  adjectives. 

Those  specifying  adjectives  commonly  called  Ad- 
jective Pronouns,  may  be  divided  into  three  sorts ; 
the  distributive,  the  demonstrative,  and  the  indefinite. 
They  are  all  known  by  the  lists, 

I.  The  distributive  adjectives  are  those  that  denote 
the  persons  or  things  that  make  up  a  number,  each 
taken  separately  and  singly.  List :  each,  evtrif,  either, 
and  sometimes  neither ;  as,  '^  Each  of  his  brothers  is 
in  a  favorable  situation;"  '^ Every  man  must  account 
for  himself;"  "Neither  of  them  is  industrious." 

These  distributives  are  words  which  are  introduced  into  lan- 
guage in  its  refmed  state,  in  order  to  express  the  nicest  shades 
and  colors  of  thought.  "Man  must  account  for  himself;" 
^^ Mankind  must  account  for  themselves  ;"  "  All  men  must  account 
for  themselves;"  **  AU  men,   women j  and    children,   must   ao* 


-06  ETYMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

count  for  themselves;"  ^^  Every  man  must  account  for  himself." 
Each  of  these  ^sertions  conveys  the  same  fact  or  truth.  But 
the  last,  instead  of  presenting  the  whole  human  family  for  the 
mind  to  contemplate  in  a  mass,  by  the  peculiar  force  of  ererv, 
distrihutes  them,  and  presents  each  separately  and  singly ;  and 
whatever  is  affirmed  of  one  individual,  the  mind  instantaneously 
transfers  to  the  whole  human  race. 

Each  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  and  signities  either  of  the 
two,  or  evei-y  one  of  any  number  taken  separately. 

Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies  each  one  of  them 
all  taken  separately. 

Either  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  taken  separately,  and  signifies  the 
one  or  the  other.  "  Either  of  the  three,"  is  an  improper  expi-ession.  It 
should  be,  "  any  of  the  three." 

Neither  imports  not  either;  that  is,  not  one  nor  the  other ;  as,  "  Neither  of 
my  friends  was  there."  When  an  allusion  is  made  to  more  than  tiro,  none 
should  be  used  instead  o{ neither;  as,  "  None  of  my  friends  was  there." 

II.  The  demonstrative  are  those  which  precisely 
point  out  the  subject  to  which  they  relate.  List  : 
this  and  that,  and  their  plurals,  these  and  those,  and 
former  and  latter  ;  as,  "  This  is  true  charity ;  "  that 
is  only  its  image." 

There  is  but  a  slight  shade  of  difference  in  the  meaning  and 
application  of  the  and  that.  When  reference  is  made  to  a  par- 
ticular book,  we  say,  "  Take  the  book  ;"  but  when  we  wish  to 
be  very  pointed  and  precise,  we  say,  "Take  tliat  book ;"  or,  if  it 
be  near  by,  "  Take  this  book."  You  perceive,  then,  that  these 
demonstratives  have  all  the  force  of  the  definite  article,  and  a 
little  more. 

This  and  these  refer  to  the  nearest  persons  or  things,  that  and  those  to  the 
most  distant ;  as,  "  These  goods  are  superior  to  those."  This  and  these  indi- 
cate the  latter,  or  last  mentioned  ;  that  and  those,  the  former,  or  first  men- 
tioned ;  as,  "  Both  wealth  and  poverty  are  temptations ;  that  tends  to  excite 
pride,  this,  discontent." 

"  Some  place  the  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease  ; 
Those  call  it  pleasure,  and  contentment,  these." 

They,  those.  As  it  is  the  office  of  the  personal  they  to  represent  a  noun 
previously  introduced  to  our  notice,  there  appears  to  be  a  Hlight  departure 
from  analogy  in  the  following  application  of  it :  "  They  who  seek  after  wis- 
dom, are  sure  to  find  her :  They  that  sow  in  tears,  sometimes  reap  in  joy." 
This  usage,  however,  is  well  established,  and  they,  in  such  constructions,  is 
generally  employed  in  preference  to  those. 

III.  The  indefinite  are  those  which  express  their 
subjects  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner.  List : 
some,  other,  any,  one,  all,  such,  both,  same,  another, 


ADJECTIVE     PRONOUNS. PARSING.  J  07 

noTit..     Of  these,  one  and  other  are  declined  like  nouns. 
Anochcr  is  declined,  but  wants  the  plural. 

The  indefinite  adjectives,  like  the  indefinite  article,  leave  thr 
meaning  unfixed,  or,  in  some  degree,  vague.  With  a  slight 
shade  of  difference  in  meaning,  we  say.  Give  me  a  paper,  one 
paper,  any  paper,  some  paper,  and  so  on.  Though  these  words 
restrict  the  meaning  of  the  noun,  they  do  not  fix  it  to  a  particular 
object.     Wo  therefore  call  them  indefinite. 

These  adjectives,  or  adjective  pronounfl,  frequently  belong  to  nouns  upder- 
stood,  in  which  situation  they  should  he  parsed  accordingly ;  as,  "  You  may 
take  eUher ;  He  is  pleased  with  this  book,  but  dislikes  that  (book ;)  All  (men) 
have  siimiHl,  but  tome  (men)  have  repented." 

The  words,  one,  other,  and  none,  are  used  in  both 
numbers  ;  and,  when  they  stand  for  nouns,  they  are 
not  adjectives,  but  indefinite  pronouns ;  as,  "  The 
great  ones  oi  the  world  have  their  failings;"  *'Some 
men  increase  in  wealth,  while o^^r5  decrease;"  "  Non^ 
escape." 

The  woitl  "ones,"  in  the  preceding  example,  does  not  belong 
to  a  noun  understood.  If  it  did,  we  could  supply  the  noun.  The 
meaning  is  not  "  the  great  one  men,  nor  ones  men,"  therefore  ene 
is  not  an  adjective  pronoun ;  but  the  meaning  is,  "  The  great 
men  of  the  world,"  therefore  ones  is  a  pronoun  of  the  indefinite 
kind,  representing  the  noun  men  understood,  and  it  ought  to  be 
parsed  like  a  personal  pronoun.  The  word  others,  in  the  next 
example,  is  a  compound  pronoun,  equivalent  to  other  men  ;  and 
should  he  [)arscd  like  mine,  thine,  S^c.     See  Note  4th,  page  100. 

I  will  now  parse  two  pronouns,  and  then  present  some  exam- 
pies  for  you  to  analyze.  If,  in  parsing  the  following  exercises, 
you  should  be  at  a  loss  for  definitions  and  rules,  please  to  refer  to 
the  compcmiium.  But  before  you  proceed,  you  may  commit  the 
following 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order   of  parsing   an   Adjective   Pronoun, 
is — an  adjective    pronoun,  and  why  ? — distributive, 
demonstrative,  or  indefinite,  and  why  ? — to  what,  noun 
does  it  belong,  or  with  what  does  it  agree  ? — Rule. 

"  One  man  uistructs  many  olfiers.'* 
One  i«  an  adjective  pronoun,  6t  specifying  adjective,  it  speoi-^ 


108  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

fically  points  out  a  noun — indefinite,  it  expi esses  its  subject  in  an 
indefinite  or  general  manner,  and  belongs  to  the  noun  "  man," 
according  to 

Rule  19.  Adjective  pronowis  belang  to  nouns,  expressed  01 
understood. 

Others  is-  a  compound  pronoun,  including  both  an  adjective 
pronoun  and  a  noun,  and  is  equivalent  to  other  men.  Other  is  an 
adjective  pronoun,  it  is  used  specifically  to  describe  its  noun — 
indefinite,  it  expresses  its  subject  in  an  indefinite  manner,  and 
belongs  to  men  :  Rule  19.  (Repeat  the  rule.)  Men  is  a  noun,  a 
name  denoting  persons — common,  &;c.  (parse  it  in  full ;)  and  in 
the  objective  case,  it  is  the  object  of  the  action  expressed  by 
the  transitive  verb  "  instructs,"  and  gov.  by  it :  Rule  20.  Active- 
transitive  verbs,  SfC. 

"  Those  books  are  mine." 

Those  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  it  specifies  what  noun  is  refer- 
red to — demonstrative,  it  precisely  points  out  the  subject  to  which 
it  relates — and  agrees  with  the  noun  "  books"  in  the  plural  num- 
ber, according  to  Note  1,  under  Rule  19.  Adjective  pronouns 
must  agree  in  number  with  their  nouns. 

Mine  is  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  including  both  the  pos- 
sessor and  the  thing  possessed,  and  is  equivalent  to  my  books. 
My  is  a  pron.  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal,  it  stands 
for  the  name  of  the  person  speaking — first  person,  it  denotes  the 
speaker — sing,  number,  it  implies  but  one — and  in  the  poss.  case, 
it  denotes  possession,  and  is  gov.  by  "  books,"  according  to  Rule 
12.  (Repeat  the  rule,  and  decline  the  pronoun.)  Books  is  a 
noun,  the  name  of  a  thing — common,  &c.  (parse  it  in  full ;) — 
and  in  the  nominative  case  afl;er  "are,"  according  to  Rule  21. 
The  verb  to  be  admits  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Each  individual  fills  a  space  in  creation.  Every  man  helps  a 
little.  These  men  rank  among  the  great  ones  of  the  world. 
That  book  belongs  to  the  tutor,  this  belongs  to  me.  Some  men 
labor,  others  labor  not ;  the  former  increase  in  wealth,  the  latter 
decrease.  The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole  the  young 
ones.  None  performs  his  duty  too  well.  None  of  those  poor 
wretches  complain  of  their  miserable  lot. 

NoTB.  In  parsing  the  distributive  pronominal  adjectives,  Notk  2,  ondei 
Rule  Id,  should  be  applied. 

m.  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
^    Rela'^ive  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate,  in  general 


IBLATITB   rRONODNS.  100 

to  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  which  is  called 
the  antecedent.     They  are  who^  which,  and  that. 

The  word  antecedent,  comes  froir^the  two  Latin  words,  ante, 
before,  and  cedo,  to  go.  Honce  you  perceive,  that  antecedent 
means  going  before ;  thus,  "  The  man  is  happy  irho  lives  virtuously ; 
This  is  the  lady  who  relieved  my  wants ;  Tlum  who  lovest  wis- 
dom,  «kc.  We  tofio  speak  from  experience,"  A;c.  The  relative 
fvho,  in  these  sentences,  relates  to  the  several  words,  man,  lady, 
thou,  and  tee,  which  words,  you  observe,  come  before  the  relative  ; 
they  are,  therefore,  properly  called  antecedent's. 

The  relative  is  not  varied  on  account  of  gender,  person,  or 
number,  like  a  personal  pronoun.  When  we  use  a  personal  pro- 
noun, in  speaking  of  a  man,  we  say  he,  and  of  a  woman,  she; 
in  speaking  of  one  person  or  thing,  we  use  a  singular  pronoun, 
of  more  than  one,  a  plural,  and  so  on  ;  but  there  is  no  such  vari- 
ation of  the  relative.  Who,  in  the  first  of  the  preceding  exam- 
ples, relates  to  an  antecedent  of  the  mas.  gend.  third  pers.  sing. ; 
in  the  second,  the  antecedent  is  of  the  fem.  gend.;  in  the  third, 
it  is  of  the  second  pers. ;  and  in  the  fourth,  it  is  of  the  first  pers. 
plur.  num. ;  and,  yet,  the  relative  is  in  tho  same  form  in  each 
example.  Hence  you  perceive,  that  the  relative  has  no  peculiar 
form  to  denote  its  gend.  pers.  and  num.,  but  it  always  agrees 
with  its  antecedent  in  sense.  Thus,  when  I  say.  The  man  wlio 
writes,  who  is  mas.  gend.  and  sing. ;  but  when  I  say,  The  ladies 
who  write,  who  is  feminine,  and  plural.  In  order  to  ascertain  the 
gend.  pers.  and  num.  of  the  relative,  you  must  always  look  at  its 
antecedent. 

Who,  Which,  and  That. 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  things  and 
brutes ;  as,  "  He  is  a  friend  who  is  faithful  in  adver- 
sity ;  The  bird  which  sung  so  sweetly,  is  flown  ;  This 
is  the  tree  which,  produces  no  fruit." 

That  is  often  used  as  a  relative,  to  prevent  the  too 
frequent  repetition  of  who  and  which.  It  is  applied 
both  to  persons  and  things ;  as,  "  He  that  acts  wisely, 
deserves  praise;  Modesty  is  a  quality  that  highly 
adorns  a  woman." 

NOTES. 
1.    WTu>  thould  never  be  applied  to  animals.     The  foUowiug  appUcatioo 
ai  it  is  erroneous : — "  He  is  like  a  beatt  of  prey,  kHo  destroys  without  pity.** 
I  ihuuld  be,  that  destroys,  &c. 

10 


110  t 'YMOLOGY    AND    SYNTAX. 

2.  Wl/)  should  not  be  applied  to  children.  It  is  incorrect  to  say,  Tue 
child  whom  we  have  just  seen,"  &c.  It  should  be,  "  The  child  that  we  have 
just  seen." 

3.  Which  may  be  applied  to  persons  when  we  wish  to  distinguish  one  pei-- 
son  of  two,  or  a  particular  person  among  a  number  of  others ;  as,  "  JVhich 
of  the  two  1      Which  of  them  is  he  ?" 

4.  That,  in.  preference  to  who  or  ichich,  is  applied  to  persons  when  they 
are  qualified  by  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree,  or  by  tlie  pronominal 
adjective  same ;  as,  "  Charles  XII.,  king  of  Sweden,  was  one  of  the  greatest 
madmen  that  the  world  ever  saw  ; — He  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  before.'' 

5.  That  is  employed  after  the  interrogative  who,  in  cases  like  the  follow- 
mg;   *'  Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  woul4  have  argued  thus  ?" 

When  the  word  ever  or  soever  is  annexed  to  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  the  combination  is  called  a  compound 
pronoun  ;  as,  tvhoever  or  whosoever,  whichever  or  which- 
soever,  whatever  or  whatsoever. 

DECLENSION  OF  THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAR   AND  PLURAL. 

Nom.  who,  Poss.  whose,  Ohj.  whom. 

"       whoever,  "        whosever,  "      whomever. 

"       whosoever,  *•        whosesoever,      "      whomsoever. 

Which  and  tliat  are  indeclinable,  except  that  whose  is  some- 
times used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which ;  as,  "  Is  there  any 
other  doctrine  whose  followers  are  punished  ;"  that  is,  the  follow- 
ers of  which  are  punished.  The  use  of  this  license  has  obtained 
among  our  best  writers ;  but  the  construction  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, for  it  is  a  departure  from  a  plain  principle  of  grammar, 
namely,  who,  whose,  whom,  in  their  applications,  should  be  con- 
fined to  rational  beings. 

That  may  be  used  as  a  pronoun,  an  adjective,  and  a  conjunc- 
tion, depending  on  the  ofHce  which  it  performs  in  the  sentence. 

That  is  a  relative  only  when  it  can  be  changed  to  who  or  tohich 
without  destroying  the  sense;  as,  "They  that  (who)  reprove  us, 
may  be  our  best  friends  ;  From  every  thing  that  (which)  you  see, 
derive  instruction."  That  is  a  demonstrative  adjective,  when  it 
belongs  to,  or  points  out,  some  particular  noun,  either  expressed 
or  implied  ;  as,  "  Return  that  Look  ;  That  belcngs  to  me  ;  Give 
me  t1iat.^^  When  that  is  neither  a  relative  nor  an  adjective  pro- 
noun, it  is  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  Take  care  that  every  day  be  well 
employed."  The  word  that,  in  this  last  sentence,  cannot  be 
changed  to  who  or  which  without  destroying  the  sense,  therefore 
you  know  it  is  not  a  relative  pronoun  ;  neither  does  it  point  out 
any  particular  noun,  for  which  reason  you  know  it  is  not  an  ad- 
jective pronoun ;  but  it  connects  the  sentence,  therefore  it  ii3  a 
con'u'nb'ticJn. 


RBLATIVB    PRONOUNS;  111 

If  you  pay  particular  attention  to  this  elucidation  of  the  word 
thatj  you  will  find  no  difficulty  in  parsing  it.  When  it  is  a  rela- 
tive or  an  adjective  pronoun,  it  may  l>e  known  by  the  signs  given  ; 
tnd  whenever  these  signs  will  not  apply  to  it,  you  know  it  is  a 
conjunction. 

Some  writers  are  apt  to  make  too  free  use  of  this  word.  I  will 
give  you  one  example  of  affronted  that,  which  may  serve  as  a 
caution.  The  tutor  said,  in  speaking  of  the  word  that,  that  that 
that  that  that  lady  parsed,  was  not  the  that  that  that  gentleman 
requested  her  to  analyze.  This  sentence,  though  rendered  inel- 
egant by  a  bad  choice  of  words,  is  strictly  grammatical.  The 
first  that  is  a  noun  ;  the  second,  a  conjunction  ;  the  third,  an  ad- 
jective pronoun  ;  the  fourth,  a  noun  ;  the  fifth,  a  relative  pro- 
noun ;  the  sixth,  an  adjective  pronoun  ;  the  seventh,  a  noun  ;  the 
eighth,  a  relative  pronoun  ;  the  ninth,  an  adjective  pronoun.  The 
meaning  of  the  sentence  will  be  more  obvious,  if  rendered  thus ; 
The  tutor  said,  in  speaking  of  the  word  that,  that  that  that  which 
that  lady  parsed,  was  not  the  that  which  that  gentleman  requested 
her  to  analyze. 

WHAT. 
What  is  generally  a  compound  relative,  including 
both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is  equiva- 
lent to  that  which  ;  as,  "  This  is  what  I  wanted  ; " 
that  is,  that  which,  or,  the  thing  which  I  wanted. 

IVhat  is  compounded  of  which  that.  These  words  have  been 
contracted  and  made  to  coalesce,  a  part  of  the  orthography  of 
both  being  still  retained  :  wliat — wh[ich — t]lMt  ;  {which-Lhat.) 
Anciently  it  appeared  in  the  varying  forms,  tha  qtia,  qua  tlia^ 
qu'tha,  quthat,  quliaty  hwat,  and  finally,  what. 

What  may  be  used  as  three  kinds  of  a  pronoun,  and  as  an 
interjection.  When  it  is  equivalent  to  that  which,  the  thirty  which, 
or  those  things  wluch,  it  is  a  compound  relative,  because  it  includes 
both  the  antecedent  and  the  relative  ;  as,  "  I  will  try  wliat  (that 
which)  can  be  found  in  female  delicacy ;  What  you  recollect 
with  most  pleasure,  are  the  virtuous  actions  of  your  past  life  ;'* 
that  is,  those  things  which  you  recollect,  &c. 

When  what  is  a  compound  relative,  you  must  always  parse  it 
as  two  words ;  that  is,  you  must  parse  the  antecedent  part  as  a 
noun,  and  give  it  a  case  ;  the  relative  part  you  may  analyze  like 
any  other  relative,  giving  it  a  case  likewise.  In  the  first  of  the 
preceding  examples,  that,  the  antecedent  part  of  what,  is  in  the 
obj.  CABC,  governed  by  the  verb  "  will  try  ;"  which,  the  relative 


112  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYISTAX. 

part,  is  in  the  nom.  case  to  "  can  be  found."  "  I  have  heard 
what  (i.  e.  that  which,  or  the  thing  which)  has  been  alleged." 

W/ioever  and  whosoever  are  also  compound  relatives,  and  should 
be  parsed  like  the  compound  what ;  as,  "  TVIwever  takes  that  oath, 
is  bound  to  enforce  the  laws."  In  this  sentence,  whoever  is  equiv- 
alent to  he  wJio,  or,  tJie  man  who  ;  thus,  "  He  who  takes  that  oath, 
is  bound,"  &c. 

WJio,  which,  and  what,  when  used  in  asking  questions,  are 
called  interrogative  pronouns,  or  relatives*  of  the  interrogative 
kind  ;  as,  "  Who  is  he  ?  T\^ich  is  the  person  ?  What  are  you 
doing?" 

Interrogative  pronouns  have  no  antecedent ;  but  they  relate  to 
(he  word  or  phrase  which  is  the  answer  to  the  question,  for  their 
subsequent ;  as,  "  Wliom  did  you  see  ?  The  preceptor.  What 
have  you  done  ?  Nothing."  Antecedent  and  subsequent  are 
opposed  to  each  other  in  signification.  Antecedent  means  prece- 
ding, or  going  before  ;  and  subsequent  means  following,  or  coming 
after.      What,  when  used  as  an  interrogative,  is  never  compound. 

Wliat,  which,  and  tliat,  when  joined  to  nouns,  are  specifying 
adjectives,  or  adjective  pronouns,  in  which  situation  they  have  no 
case,  but  are  parsed  like  adjective  pronouns  of  the  demonstrative 
or  indefinite  kind  ;  as,  "  Unto  which  promise  our  twelve  tribes 
hope  to  come  ;"  '■'■What  misery  the  vicious  endure!  TFAaihavock 
hast  thou  made,  foul  monster,  sin  ! " 

What  and  which,  when  joined  to  nouns  in  asking  questions, 
are  denominated  interrogative  pronominal  adjectives ;  as,  "  What 
man  is  that  ?      Which  road  did  he  take  ?  " 

What,  whatever,  and  whatsoever,  which,  whichever,  and  which- 
soever, in  constructions  like  the  following,  are  compound  pro- 
nouns, but  not  compound  relatives  ;  as,  "  In  what  character  But- 
ler was  admitted,  is  unknown  ;  Give  him  what  name  you  choose ; 
Nature's  care  largely  endows  whatever  happy  man  will  deign  to 
use  her  treasures ;  Let  him  take  which  course,  or,  whichever 
course  he  will."  These  sentences  may  be  rendered  thus  ;  "  That 
character,  or,  the  character  in  which  Butler  was  admitted,  is  un- 
known ;  Give  him  that  name,  or,  the  name  which  you  choose ; 
Nature's  care  endows  that  happy  man  who  will  deign,  &;c. ;  Let 
him  take  that  course,  or  the  course  which  he  will."  A  compound 
relative  necessarily  includes  both  an  antecedent  and  a  relative. 
Those  compounds,  you  will  notice,  do  not  include  antecedents, 
the  first  part  of  each  word  being  the  article  the,  or  the  adjective 
pronoun,  that;  therefore  they  cannot  properly  be  denominated 
compound  relatives. — With  regard  to  the  wojd  ever  annexed  to 
these  pronouns,  it  is  a  singular  fact,  tliat,  as  soon  as  we  analyze 


RJiLATIVS   PUOMOUNS. PAESlNti.  IIL 

the  word  to  which  it  is  subjoined,  ever  is  entirely  excluded  fiotii 
the  sentence. 

What  is  sometimes  used  as  an  interjection  ;  as,  ''  But  to/uit  ! 
is  thy  servant  a  dog,  that  ho  should  do  this?  What!  rob  us  of 
our  right  of  sutTrage,  and  then  shut  us  up  in  dungeons ! " 

You  have  now  come  to  the  most  formidable  obstacle,  or,  if  I 
may  so  speak,  to  the  most  rugged  eminence  in  the  path  of  gram- 
matical science ;  but  be  not  disheartened,  for,  if  you  can  get 
safely  over  tliis,  your  future  course  will  be  interrupted  wiili 
only  here  and  there  a  gentle  elevation.  It  will  require  close 
application,  and  a  great  deal  of  sober  thinking,  to  gain  a  clear 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  relative  pronouns,  particularly 
the  compound  relatives,  which  are  not  easily  comprehended  by 
the  young  learner.  As  this  eighth  lecture  is  a  very  imj)ortant 
one,  it  Jbecomes  necessary  for  you  to  read  it  carefully  four  or  five 
times  over  before  you  proceed  to  commit  the  following  order. 
Whenever  you  parse,  you  may  spread  the  Compendium  before 
you,  if  you  please. 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  a  Relative  Pronoun,  is — 
a  pronoun,  and  why  ? — relative,  and  why  ? — gender, 
person,  and  number,  and  why  ? — Rule  : — case,  and 
why  ? — Rule. — DecHne  it. 

"  This  is  the  man  whom  we  saw." 

Whom  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — relative, 
it  relates  to  "man"  for  its  antecedent — mas.  gend.  third  pers. 
sing.  num.  because  the  antecedent  "  man  "  is  with  which  it  agrees, 
according  to 

Rule  14.  Relative  pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gen- 
derj  persofij  and  number.  Whom  is  in  the  objective  case,  the 
object  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  active-transitive  verb  "saw," 
and  governed  by  it,  agreeably  to 

Rule  16.  When  a  nominative  comes  hetioeen  the  relative  and 
the  verby  the  relative  is  governed  by  the  following  verb,  or  some 
other  word  in  its  own  member  of  the  sentence. 

Whomy  in  the  objective  case,  is  placed  before  the  verb  that 
governs  it,  according  to  Note  1,  under  Rule  16.  (Repeat  the 
Note,  and  decline  who.) 

"  From  what  is  recorded,  he  appears,"  &c. 

What  is  a  comp.  rel.  pron.  including  both  the  antecedent  and 
the  relative,  and  is  equivalent  to  that  which,  or  the  thing  which — 
Thingt  the  antecedent  part  of  wliat,  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a 

in* 


114  ETYMOLOGTC  AND   SYNTAX. 

thing — com.  the  name  of  a  species — neuter  gender,  it  has  n'^ 
sex — third  person,  spoken  of — sing,  number,  it  implies  but  one— ^ 
and  in  the  obj.  case,  it  is  the  object  of  the  relation  expressed  by^ 
the  prep.  "  from,"  and  gov.  by  it :  Rule  31.  (Repeat  the  Rule^ 
and  every  other  Rule  to  which  I  refer.)  Which,  the  relative 
part  of  what,  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — rela- 
tive, it  relates  to  "  thing  "  for  its  antecedent — neut.  gender,  thirci 
person,  sing,  number,  because  the  antecedent  "  thing"  is  witht 
which  it  agrees,  according  to  Rule  14.  Rel.  pron.  &c.  Which 
is  ifi-  the  nom.  case  to  the  verb  "  is  recorded,"  agreeably  to 

Rule  15.  The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb,  when 
no  nominative  comes  between  it  and  the  verb. 

"  What  have  you  learned?     Nothing."  2 

What  is  a  pron.  a  word  used,  &c. — relative  of  the  interrog- 
ative kind,  because  it  is  used  in  asking  a  question — it  refers 
to  the  word  "  nothing  "  for  its  subsequent,  according  to 

Rule  17.  When  the  rel.  pron.  is  of  the  interrog.  kind,  it  refers 
to  the  word  or  phrase  containing  the  answer  to  the  question,  for  its. 
subsequent,  which  subsequent  must  agree  in  case  with  the  interroga- 
tive. Wlmt  is  of  the  neut.  gend.  third  pers.  sing,  because  the 
subsequent  "nothing"  is  with  which  it  agrees;  Rule  14.  Rel. 
pron.  agree,  &c. — It  is  in  the  obj.  case,  the  object  of  the  action, 
of  the  active-transitive  verb  "have  learned,"  and  gov.  by  i^ 
agreeably  to  Rule  16.  When  a  nom.  &c.  See  Note  1,  under 
the  Rule.  '■ 

Note.  1.  You  need  not  apply  gend.  pers.  and  numb,  to  the  interrogative 
wlieu  the  answer  to  the  question  is  not  expressed. 

WHO,  WHICH,  WHAT.  i 

Truth  and  simplicity  are  twin  sisters,  and  generally  go  hand 
in  hand.  The  foregoing  exposition  of  the  "relative  pronouns," 
is  in  accordance  with  the  usual  method  of  treating  them  ;  but  if 
they  were  unfolded  according  to  their  true  character,  they  woulc^ 
be  found  to  be  very  simple,  and,  doubtless,  much  labor  and  per- 
plexity, on  the  part  of  the  learner,  would  thereby  be  saved.         j 

Of  the  words  called  "  relatives,"  who,  only,  is  a  pronoun  ;  and 
this  is  strictly  personal ;  more  so,  indeed,  if  we  except  I  and  we^ 
than  any  other  word  in  our  language,  for  it  is  always  restricted^ 
to  persons.  It  ought  to  be  classed  with  the  personal  pronouns.' 
/,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  we,  ye,  you,  and  they,  relate  to  antecedents,  as| 
well  as  who.  Which,  that,  and  what,  are  always  adjectives.; 
They  never  stand  for,  but  always  belong  to  nouns,  either  ex-* 
pressed  or  implied.  They  specify,  like  many  other  adjectives,^ 
and  connect  sentences. 

Who  supplies  the  place  of  which  or  what    and  its  personal 


RELATIVE   PEONOUNS. PARSING.  115 

noun.  Who  came  ?  i.  e.  tehat  many  what  toomany  what  person  ; — 
Ufhich  man,  woman,  or  person,  camn  ?  "  They  heard  what  I  said" — 
they  heard  that  (tiling)  wfiich  (thin;^)  I  said.  "  Take  what 
whichever)  course  you  please  ;" — take  that  course  which  (coursoy 
you  please  to  take.  "  What  have  you  done  V  i.  e.  lohai  thing, 
act,  or  deed  have  you  done?  "  Which  thing  I  also  did  at  Jeru- 
salom."  "  Which  will  you  take  ?" — which  book,  hat,  or  some, 
thing  else  ?  "  This  is  the  tree  which  (tree)  produces  no  fruit." 
"  IT.'  iJuit  (man,  or  which  man)  acts  wisely,  deserves  praise." 

who  prefer  this  method  of  treating  the  "  relatives,"  are 
..:  ...J  ;Ly  to  adopt  it,  and  parse  accordingly. 

KXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

,  The  man  who  instructs  you,  lal)ors  faithfully.  The  boy  whom 
I  instruct,  leanis  well.  The  lady  whose  house  we  occupy,  bestows 
nriany  charities.  That  modesty  which  highly  adorns  a  woman, 
she  possesses.  He  that  acts  wisely  deserves  praise.  This  is  the 
tree  which  produces  no  fruit.  I  believe  what  he  says.  lie 
speaks  what  he  knows.  Whatever  purifies  the  heart,  also  foili- 
fies  it.  What  docst*  thou  ?  Nothing.  What  book  have  you  ? 
A  poem.  Whose  hat  have  you  ?  John's.  Who  docs  that  work  ? 
Henry.  Whom  seest  thou  ?  To  whom  gave  you  the  present  ? 
Which  pen  did  he  take  ?  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him 
declare  1  unto  you.  I  heard  what  he  said.  George,  you  may 
pursue  whatever  science  suits  your  taste.  Eliza,  take  which- 
ever  pattern  pleases  you  best.  Whoever  lives  to  see  this  repub- 
lic forsake  her  moral  and  literary  institutions,  will  behold  her 
liberties  prostrated.  Whosoever,  therefore,  will  be  a  friend  of 
the  world,  is  the  enemy  of  God. 

NoTK.  The  Doniinative  case  is  frequently  placed  after  the  verb,  and  tlie 
objective  case,  before  the  verb  that  governs  iL  Whom,  in  every  Huntence 
except  one,  house,  modesty,  book,  hat,  pen,  him,  tlie  third  ichat  and  which,  the 
relative  part  of  the  first  two  vhats,  are  all  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed 
by  tlie  several  verbs  that  follow  thorn.  See  Rut.k  16,  and  Notk  1.  Tree  is 
Dom.  after  is,  according  to  Rule  21.  Thing,  the  antecedent  part  of  teknterer, 
is  nom.  to  "  fortifies ;"  which,  the  relative  part,  is  noin.  to  "  purilies."  No- 
thing is  governed  by  do,  and  poem,  by  have,  nnderstrKxl.  Henn/  is  nomina 
live  to  does,  understood.  IV/iose  and  JohrCs  are  governed  according  to  Rci.« 
12.  /,  thou,  you,  him,  &c.  represent  nouns  understood.  I[im,  in  the  last  sen> 
tence  but  five,  is  governed  by  declare,  antl  /  is  nominative  to  declare.    Georpe 

aii.l  r'  -  -  "-•  ••    ...-.:...,.:...  :..  I   Jnnt :  Rule  5.     "  Whatever 

•ci-  -iuits  your  tnste  ; — "  which' 

eri'  I  best.      Whoever  in  a  cuiU' 

*  The  second  |)enM)u  singular  of  do,  when  used  as  a  princi|Hil  v6rb,  it 
■pelled  with  an  e  ;  thus,  "  VVhat  thou  does/,  do  quickly  ;"  but  when  employ* 
M  as  an  auxiliary,  the  e  should  be  omitted ;  as,  "  Dost  thou  not  behold  a  rock 
with  iu  bead  of  beutb  1" 


116  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX.  \ 

^und  relative ;   ke,  the  autecedent  part,  is  nominative  to  "  will  behold."  ] 

Take  agi'ees  with  you  understood.     Forsake  is  in  the  infinitive  mood  after  j 
"see:"  Rule  25. 

REMARKS  ON  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  '. 

Which  sometimes  relates  to  a  member  of  a  sentence,  or  to  a  whole  sen- 
tence, for  its  antecedent :  as,  "  We  are  required  to  fear  God  and  keep  his  :; 
commandments,  which  is  the  whole  duty  of  man."     What  is  the  whole  duty  | 
of  man  ?     "  To  fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments :"    therefore,  this  i 
phrase  is  the  antecedent  to  which.  \ 

The  conjunction  as,  when  it  follows  such,  many,  or  same,  is  frequently  de-  1 

nominated  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  I  am  pleased  with  such  as  have  a  refined  i 

taste  ;"  that  is,  with  those  who,  or  them  who  have,  &c.     "  Let  such  as  presuijie  j 

to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own  conduct ;"  that  is,  Let  those,  or  them  \ 

loho  presume,  &c.    "  As  m^ny  as  were  ordained  to  eternal  life,  believed ;"  that  i 

is,  they,  those,  or  all  who  were  ordained,  believed.     "  He  exhibited  the  same  • 

testimonials  as  were  adduced  on  a  former  occasion  ;"  that  is,  those  testimo-  J 

nials  which  were  adduced,  &c.     But,  in  examples  like  these,  if  we  supply  the  \ 

ellipsis  which  a  critical  analysis  requires  us  to  do,  as  will  be  found  to  be  a  ' 

conjunction ;  thus,  "  I  am  pleased  with  such  persons,  as  those  persons  are  who  m 

have  a  refined  taste ;  Let  such  persons,  as  those  persons  are  who  presume,"  &c.  I 

QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED   IN  PARSING.  : 

From  what  words  is  the  term  pronoun  derived  ? — Do  pronouns  1 

always  avoid  the  repetition  of  nouns  ? — Name  the  three  kinds  of  j 

pronouns. — What  distinguishes  the    personal  from  the  relative  - 

pronouns  ? — How  many  personal  pronouns  are  there  ? — Repeat  \ 

them. — What  belong  to  pronouns  ? — Is  gender  applied  to  all  the  * 

personal  pronouns  ? — To  which  of  them  is  it  applied  ? — Which  \ 

of  the  personal  pronouns  have  no  peculiar  termination  to  denote  ; 

their  gender  ? — How  many  persons  have  pronouns  ? — Speak  them  i 

in  their  different  persons. — How  many  numbers  have  pronouns  ? —  "; 

How  many  cases  ? — What  are  they  ? — Decline  all  the  personal  i 

pronouns. — When  self  is  added  to  the  personal  pronouns,  what  i 

are  they  called,  and  how  are  they  used  ? — When  is  you  singular  \ 

in  sense  ? — Is  it  ever  singular  in  form  1 — Why  are  the  words,  my,  \ 

thy,  his,  her,  our,  your,  their,  called  personal  pronouns  ? — Why  i 

are  the  words,  mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs,  denominated  j 

compound  pers.  pron.? — How  do  you  parse  these  compounds  ? — -  ^ 

What  is  said  of  others  ? — Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  a  personal  \ 

pronoun. — What  rule  do  you  apply  in  parsing  a  pronoun  of  the  : 

first  person,  and  in  the  nom.  case  ? — What  rule  when  the  pro-  i 

noun  is  in  the  possessive  case  ? — What  Rules  apply  in  parsing  ; 

personal  pronouns  of  the  second  and  third  person  ? — What  Rules  \ 

in  parsing  the  compounds,  yours,  ours,  mine,  &;c.? — What  is  saic'  ; 

of  the  pronoun  it  ?  ; 

Wliat  are  adjective  pronouns  ? — Name  the  three  kinds. — What  j 

does  each  relate  to  ? — To  what  does  every  relate  ? — To  what  does  j 

iiOier  relate  ? — What  does  neither  import  ? — To  what  do  this  and  \ 


PBONOimS. FALSB  SYNTAX.  117 

these  refer  ? — Give  examples. — To  what  do  thai  and  those  refer  ? — 
Give  examples. — Repeal  all  tlio  adjective  pronouns. — When  adj. 
pronouns  belong  to  nouns  understood,  how  are  they  parsed  ? — 
When  they  stand  for,  or  represent  nouns,  what  are  they  called  ? — 
Give  examples. — Repeat  the  order  of  parsing  an  adj.  pronoun. — 
What  Rule  do  you  apply  in  parsing  the  indefinite  adjective  pro- 
nouns ? — What  Notes,  in  parsing  the  distributives  and  demon- 
Blratives  ? 

What  are  relative  pronouns? — Repeat  thom. — From  what 
words  is  the  term  antecedent  derived  ? — What  does  antecedent 
mean  ? — Are  relatives  varied  on  account  of  gender,  person,  or 
number  ? — To  what  are  who  and  lohich  applied  ? — To  what  is 
tluil  applied  ? — Sliould  who  ever  be  applied  to  irrational  beings  or 
children  ? — In  what  instances  may  which  be  applied  to  persons  ? — 
Decline  the  rel.  pronouns. — Can  which  and  tlial  be  declined  ? — 
Is  that  ever  used  as  rtirce  parts  of  speech  ? — Give  examples. — 
What  part  of  speech  is  the  word  wfiat  ? — Is  what  ever  used  as 
three  kinds  of  a  pronoun  ? — Give  examples. — What  is  said  of 
whoever? — What  words  are  used  as  interrogative  pronouns? — 
Give  examples. — When  are  the  words,  whut,  which^  and  thaty 
called  adj.  pron.? — When  are  they  called  interrogative  pronom- 
inal  adjectives  ? — What  is  said  of  whatever  and  whichever? — Is 
what  ever  used  as  an  interjection  ? — Give  examples. — Repeat  tht3 
order  of  parsing  a  rel.  pron. — What  Rules  do  you  apply  in  pars- 
ing  a  relative  ? — What  Rules  in  parsing  a  compound  relative  ? — 
Wliat  Rules  in  parsing  an  interrogative  ? — Does  the  relative 
which  ever  relate  to  a  sentence  for  its  antecedent? — When  does 
the  conjunction  as  become  a  relative  ? — Give  examples. 

EXERCISES   IN   FALSE   SYNTAX. 
Note  1,  to  Rule  13.     When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  subject 
of  a  verb,  it  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Who  will  go?     Him  and  I.     How  does  thee  do  ?     Is  thee  well? 

"  Him  and  I ;"  not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  Aim  is  the  cnbject  of  the 
▼erb  trUi  go  understood,  therefore  him  should  be  inUhe  nominative  case,  he, 
•cconliug  to  the  above  Notk.  (Repeat  the  Note.)  Him  and  /arecouuect- 
e<i  by  the  conjunction  and,  and  him  is  in  the  obj.  case,  and  /  in  the  nom., 
therefore  Hum  33d,  is  violated.  (Rept?at  the  Rule.)  In  the  second  and 
third  ••xamplen.  thee  Rhould  be  thon,  acconlinp  to  the  Note.  The  verbs,  dofi 
and  ij,  are  of  th<*  third  |>«Ti*on,  and  the  nom.  thon  is  second,  for  which  reason 
the  verbs  should  Im;  ot  the  second  person,  dott  do  and  nrt^  agreeably  to 
RcLK  4.     You  may  correct  the  other  examples, /oi*r  limes  orer. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Him  and  me  went  to  town  yesterday.     Thee  must  be  attentive. 
Him  who  is  careless,  will  not  improve.     They  can  write  as  well 


118  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

as  me.     This  is  the  mafi  whom  was  expected.     Her  and  I  de-  ^ 

serve  esteem.    I  have  made  greater  proficiency  than  him.    Whom,  \ 

of  all  my  acquaintances,  do  you  think  was  there  ?     Whom,  foi  j 

the  sake  of  his  important  services,  had  an  office  of  honor  bestowed  ] 
upon  him. 

Note  2,  to  Rule  13.     Personal  pronouns  being  used  to  supply  ] 

the  place  of  nouns,  should  not  be  employed  in  the  same  member  : 
of  the  sentence  with  the  noun  which  they  represent. 

FALSE  SYNTAX.  | 

The  men  they  are  there.     I  saw  him  the  king.     Our  cause  it  ; 

is  just.     Many  words  they  darken  speech.     That  noble  general  j 

who  had  gained  so  many  victories,  he  died,  at  last,  in  prison,  j 

Who,  instead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  continually  j 

doing  evil.  ' 

In  each  of  tlie  preceding  examples,  the  personal  pronoun  should  be  omitted,  j 

according  to  Note  2.  -^ 

Note  3,  to  Rule  13.     A  personal  pronoun  in  the  objective  j 

case,  should  not  be  used  instead  of  these  and  those,  i 

FALSE  SYNTAX.  1 
Remove  them  papers  from  the  desk.     Give  me  them  books. 

Give  them  men  their  discharge.     Observe  them  three  these,  j 

Whicli  of  them  two  persons  deserves  most  credit  ?  > 

In  all  these  examples,  those  should  be  used  in  place  of  them.     The  use  of  i 
the  personal,  them,  in  such  constructions,  presents  two  objectives  after  one 

verb  or  preposition.     This  is  a  solecism  which  may  be  avoided  by  employing  ! 

an  adjective  pronoun  in  its  stead.  ] 


LECTURE  IX. 
OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 


A  Conjunction  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is  chiefly 
used  to  connect  sentences,  joining  two  or  more  sim- 
ple sentences  into  one  compound  sentence  :  it  some- 
times connects  only  words ;  as,  "  Thou  and  he  are 
liappy,  because  you  are  good." 

Conjunctions  are  those  parts  of  language,  which,  by  joining 
sentences  in  different  ways,   mark  the  connexions  and  variou 
dependances  of  human  thought.     They  belong  to  language  onl} 
in  its  refined  state. 


i 


CONJUNCTIONS.  119 

The  term  Conjunction  comes  from  the  two  Latin  words,  con. 
which  sijjfnifics  together,  and  jungo,  to  join.  A  conjunction,  then, 
is  a  word  that  conjoins,  or  joins  tc^ether  something.  Before  you 
can  fully  comprehend  tlie  nature  and  office  of  this  sort  of  words, 
it  is  requisite  that  you  should  know  what  is  meant  by  a  sentence, 
a  simple  sentence,  and  a  compound  sentence,  for  conjunctions  are 
hiefly  used  to  connect  sentences. 

A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  forming 
complete  sense. 

A  Simple  Sentence  contains  but  one  subject,  or 
nominative,  and  one  verb  which  agrees  with  that 
nominative  ;  as,  "  Wheat  grows  in  the  field." 

You  perceire  that  this  sentence  contains  several  words  besides 
the  nominative  and  the  verb,  and  you  will  often  see  a  simple  sen- 
tence containing  many  parts  of  speech ;  but,  if  it  has  only  one 
nominative  and  one  Jinite  verb,  (that  is,  a  verb  not  in  the  infini- 
tive mood,)  it  is  a  simple  sentence,  though  it  is  longer  than  many 
compound  sentences. 

A  Compound  Sentence  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences  connected  together;  as, 
"  Wheat  grows  in  the  field,  and*  mew  reap  it." 

This  sentence  is  compound,  because  it  is  formed  of  two  simple 
sentences  joined  together  by  the  word  and  ;  which  word,  on  ac- 
count of  its  connecting  power,  is  called  a  conjunction.  If  we 
write  this  sentence  without  the  conjunction,  it  becomes  two  simple 
sentences:  thus,  "  Wheat  grows  in  the  field.     Men  reap  it." 

The  nature  and  importance  of  the  conjunction,  are  easily  illus- 
trated. After  expressing  one  thought  or  sentiment,  you  know 
we  frequently  wish  to  add  another,  or  several  others,  which  are 
closely  connected  with  it.  We  generally  eflfect  this  addition  by 
means  of  the  conjunction  :  thus,  "  The  Georgians  cultivate  rice 
an/f cotton;"  that  is,  "They  cultivate  rice  add  cotton."  This 
tentence  is  compound,  and  without  the  use  of  the  conjunction,  it 
would  be  written  in  two  separate,  simple  sentences  :  thus,  "  The 
Georgians  cultivate  rice.  They  cultivate  cotton."  The  con- 
junction,  though  chiefly  used  to  connect  sentences,  sometimes 
connect*  only  words  ;  in  which  capacity  it  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
proposition  ;  as,  "  The  sun  and  (add)  the  planets  constitute  the 
solar  system."  Id  this,  which  is  a  simple  sentence,  and  counect" 
two  words. 

A  few  more  examples  will  illustrate  the  naturp  and  exhibi- 


120  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX.  I 

the  ust,  i*f  this  part  of  speech  so  clearly,  as  to  enable  you  fully  ; 
to  comprehend  it.  The  following  simple  sentences  and  members  ' 
of  sentences,  have  no  relation  to  each  other  until  they  are  con-  : 
nected  by  conjunctions.  He  labors  harder — more  successfully —  ' 
I  do.  That  man  is  healthy — he  is  temperate.  By  filling  up  the  ) 
vacancies  in  these  sentences  with  conjunctions,  you  will  see  the  I 
importance  of  this  sort  of  words  :  thus,  He  labors  harder  and  [ 
more  successfully  than  I  do.  That  man  is  healthy  because  he  is  j 
temperate.  ] 

Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  sorts,  the  Cop-  ] 
ulative  and  Disjunctive.  | 

I,  The  Conjunction  Copulative  serves  to  connect  • 
and  continue  a  sentence  by  joining  on  a  member  ! 
which  expresses  an  addition,  a  supposition,  or  a  ^ 
cause ;  as,  "  Two  and  three  are  five ;  I  will  go  if  -j 
he  will  accompany  me  ;  You  are  happy  because  you  ! 
are  good." 

In  the  first  of  these  examples,  and  joins  on  a  word  that  ex-  ' 

presses  an  addition  ;  in  the  second,  if  connects  a  member  that  ! 

implies  a  supposition  or  condition  ;  and  in  the  third,  because  con-  j 

nects  a  member  that  expresses  a  cause.  I 

II.  The  Conjunction  Disjunctive  serves  to  connect  \ 
and  continue  a  sentence  by  joining  on  a  member  j 
that  expresses  opposition  of  meaning ;  as,  "  They  i 
came  with  her,  but  they  went  away  without  her."       j 

But  joins  on  a  member  of  this  sentence  which  expresses,  not  i 
only  something  added,  but,  also,  opposition  of  meaning.  j 

The  principal  conjunctions  may  be  known  by  the  following  ', 
lists,  which  you  may  now  commi  ^o  memory.  Some  words  in  \ 
these  lists,  are,  however,  frequerui^  used  as  adverbs,  and  some-  t 
times  as  prepositions  ;  but  if  you  study  well  the  nature  of  all  the  j 
difie rent  sorts  of  words,  you  cannot  be  at  a  loss  to  tell  the  part  of  ] 
speech  of  any  word  in  the  language.  i 

PHILOSOPHICAL    NOTES.  I 

On  scientific  principles,  our  connectives,  commonly  denominated  preposi-.  ] 
tions  and  conjunctions,  are  but  one  part  of  speechj  the  distinction  between  ; 
them  being  merely  technical.  Some  conjunctions  unite  only  words,  and  ] 
Bome  prepositions  connect  pentences.  They  are  dej-ived  from  nouns  and  : 
verbs ;  and  the  time  has  been,  when,  perhaps,  in  our  language,  they  did  not  ,i 
pei-form  the  office  of  connectives.  ' 

'    "  I  wish  you  to  believe,  thai  I  would  not  wrtfully  hurt  a  fly."     Here,  in  tfao  \ 


CU.NjuNuiiuNfl.  121 

LISTS  OK  THE  CONJUNCTIONS. 

Copulative^  And,  if,  that,  both,  then,  since,  for, 
because,  therefore,  wherefore,  provided,  besides. 

Disjunctive.  But,  or,  nor,  as,  than,  lest,  though, 
unless,  either,  neither,  yet,  notwithstanding,  never- 
theless, except,  whether,  whereas,  as  well  as. 

Some  conjunctions  are  followed  by  corresponding  conjunctions, 
so  tliat,  in  the  subsequent  member  of  the  sentence,  the  latter 
answers  to  the  former;  as, 

1.  TJuntgh—yet  or  nevertheless;  as,  *^  Though  he  was  rich, 
yet  for  our  sakes  he  became  poor." 

2.  Whether — or;  as,  "  Whether  he  will  go,  or  not,  I  cannot 
tell."     It  is  improper  to  say,  "  Whether  he  will  go  or  no." 

3.  Either — or;  as,  "I  will  either  send  it,  or  bring  it  myself." 

4.  Neither — nor  ;  as,  "  iVe///ier  thou  nor  I  can  comprehend  it." 
6.  As — as  ;  as,  "  She  is  as  amiable  as  her  sister." 

6.  As — so  ;  as,  "  As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be." 

7.  So — as  ;  as,  "  To  see  thy  glory,  so  as  I  have  seen  tKee  in 
the  sanctuary." 

8.  So — that;  as,  "  He  became  so  vain,  that  every  one  disliked 
him." 

NOTES. 

1 .  Some  conjunctions  are  used  to  connect  simple  senUneei  only,  and  form 
them  into  compound  senlenceg ;  such  as,  further,  again,  besides,  &c.  Others 
are  employed  to  connect  simple  members  only,  so  as  to  make  them  compound 
members ;  such  as,  than,  lest,  unless,  that,  so  that,  if,  though,  yet,  because, 
as  well  as,  &c.  But,  and,  therefore,  or,  nor,  for,  &c.,  connect  either  whole 
sentences,  or  simple  members. 

2.  Relative  pronouns,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  connect  sentences ; 
as,  "  Blessed  is  the  man.  vho  feareth  the  Lord,  and  kcepeth  his  command' 
mentn." 

opinion  of  H.  Tooke,  our  modem  conjunction  that,  is  merely  a  demonstrative 
ailjpctive,  in  a  disguised  form  ;  and  he  attempts  to  prove  it  by  the  following 
resolution :  "  I  would  not  wilfully  hurt  a  fly.  I  vnsh  you  to  believe  that 
[rt»««r<»on."]  Now,  if  we  aihnit,  that  that  is  an  adjective  in  the  latter  con- 
fttniction,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow,  that  it  is  the  same  part  of  speech,  nor 
that  its  associated  meaning  is  precisely  the  same,  in  the  former  constniction. 
Instead  of  expressing  our  ideas  in  two  detache<l  sentences,  by  the  former 
phraseology  we  have  a  quicker  and  closer  transition  of  thf)ught,  and  both 
tlie  mode  of  employing  that,  and  its  inferential  meaning,  are  changed,  ^f  oro- 
over,  if  we  examine  the  meaning  of  each  of  these  constructi(»n»,  taken  ii<»  a 
whole,  we  shall  find,  that  thoy  do  not  both  convey  the  same  ideas.  By  the 
lattj'r,  I  assert,  positively,  tliat  "  I  would  not  w  ilfiilly  hurt  a  fly  ;"  whereas, 
bv  tJie  former,  I  merely  with  you  to  believe  that  "  I  would  uot  wilfully  hurt 
^fiT;"  but  I  do  uot  ajtrm  that  as  a  bet. 

That  being  the  past  part,  of  Ihean,  to  get,  take,  asaiune.  by  rendering  it  as 
11 


128  ITTMOLO^T  AST)  5TWTAX. 

You  will  now  please  to  turn  back  and  read  this  lecture  four  or 
five  times  over  ;  and  then,  after  committing  the  following  order, 
you  may  parse  the  subsequent  exercises. 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  a  Conjunction,  is — a  con- 
junction, and  why  ? — copulative  or  disjunctive,  and 
why  ? — what  does  it  connect  ? 

"  Wisdom  and  virtue  form  the  good  man's  character." 

And  is  a  conjunction,  a  word  that  is  chiefly  used  to  connect 
sentences ;  but  in  this  example  it  connects  only  words— copula- 
tive, it  serves  to  connect  and  continue  the  sentence  By  joining 
on  a  member  which  expresses  an  addition — it  connects  the  words 
"  wisdom  and  virtue." 

Wisdom  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  thing — (You  may  parse  it  in 
full.) — Wisdom  is  one  of  the  nominatives  to  the  verb  "  form." 

Virtue  is  a  noun,  the  name,  &c. — (Parse  it  in  full  :)--and  in 
the  nom.  case  to  the  verb  "form,"  and  connected  to  the  noua 
"  wisdom  "  by  andy  according  to 

Rule  33.  Conjunctions  connect  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  same 
case. 

Form  is  a  verb,  a  word  which  signifies  to  do,  &c.— of  the  third 
person,  plural,  because  its  two  nominatives,  "  wisdom  and  virtue," 
are  connected  by  a  copulative  conjunction,  agreeably  to 

Rule  8.  Two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular  number,  joined  by 
copulative  conjunctions,  must  have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns  agree- 
ing with  them  in  the  plural. 

"  Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us." 

Or  is  a  conjunction,  a  word  that  is  chiefly  used  to  connect  sen- 
tences :  it  sometimes  connects  words— disjunctive,  it  serves  not 
only  to  connect  and  continue  the  sentence,  but  also  to  join  on  a 
member  which  expresses  opposition  of  meaning — it  connects  the 
nouns  "  wisdom  and  folly." 

a  participle,  instead  of  an  adjecrive,  we  should  come  nearer  to  its  primitive 
cliaracter.  Thus,  "  I  would  not  wilfully  hurt  a  fly.  I  wish  you  to  believe 
the  asxumrd  [fact  or  statement ;]  or,  the  fact  atsumed  or  taken" 

If,  (formerly  written  gif,  give,  gin,)  as  previously  stated,  is  the  imperative 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  gif  an,  to  give.  In  imitation  of  Home  Tooke,  some 
of  our  modem  philoaophical  writers  are  inclined  to  teach  pupils  to  render  it 
as  a  v^rb.  Thus,  "  I  will  go,  if  he  will  accompany  me :" — "  He  will  accom- 
pany me.  tjrant — give  that  [fact]  I  will  go."  For  the  purpose  of  asc6rtain- 
ing  the  primitive  meaning  of  this  word,  I  have  no  objection  to  such  a  reso- 
lution ;  but,  by  it,  do  we  get  the  exact  meaning  and  force  of  if  as  it  is  ap- 
plied in  our  modem,  refined  state  of  the  language  ?  I  trow  not.  But,  adjnit- 
riu{(  we  do,  do«>fl  this  proye  that  such  a  mode  of  resolving  sentences  can  be 


CONJUNCTIONS. PARSING.  lV23 

Governs  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  signifies,  dec— of  the  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  agreeing  with  "  wisdom  or  folly,"  acconU 
ing  to 

Rule  9.  Two  or  more  nouns  singular^  joined  by  disjunctiv<» 
cdnjuncUons,  must  have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns  agreeing  witk 
them  in  the  singular. 

If  you  reflect,  for  a  few  moments,  on  the  meaning  of  the  last 
two  Rules  presented,  you  will  see,  at  once,  their  propriety  and 
importance.  For  example;  in  the  sentence,  "  Orlando  and  Tho- 
mas, who  stiuly  their  lessons,  make  rapid  progress,"  you  notice  that 
the  two  singular  nouns,  Orlando  and  Thomas,  are  connected  by 
the  copulalire  conjunction  and,  therefore  the  verb  make,  which 
agrees  with  them,  is  plural,  because  it  expresses  the  action  of 
both  its  nominatives  or  actors.  And  you  observe,  too,  that  ihe 
pronouns  who  and  their,  and  the  noun  lessons,  are  plural,  agroc- 
ing  with  the  nouns  Orlando  and  Thomas,  according  to  Rule 
8.  The  verb  study  is  plural,  agreeing  with  who,  according  to 
Ruut  4.  ' 

But  let  us  connect  these  two  nouns  by  a  disjunctive  conjunc- 
tion,  and  see  how  the  sentence  will  read :  "  Orlando  or  Thomas, 
who  studies  his  lesson,  makes  rapid  progress."  Now,  you  per- 
ceive, that  a  different  construction  takes  place,  for  the  latter 
expression  does  not  imply,  that  Orlando  and  Thomas,  both  study 
and  make  rapid  progress ;  but  it  asserts,  that  either  the  one  or  the 
other  studies,  and  makes  rapid  progress.  Hence  the  verb  males 
is  singular,  because  it  expresses  the  action  of  the  one  or  the  other 
of  its  nominatives.  And  you  observe,  too,  that  the  pronouns  who 
and  his,  and  the  noun  lesson,  are  likewise  in  the  singular,  agree- 
ing with  Orlando  or  Thomas,  agreeably  to  Rule  9.  Studies  is 
also  singular,  agreeing  with  who,  according  to  Rule  4. 

advanta^eoufllT  atlopted  by  learners  in  common  schools  T  I  presume  it  cnu 
not  bo  denied,  that  insteaid  of  teaching  the  learner  to  express  himself  cor- 
rectly in  modem  English,  such  a  resolution  is  merely  making  him  familiar 
with  an  ancient  and  barbarous  construction  which  modem  refinement  b)i5 
rejected.  Our  forefathers,  I  admit,  who  were  goremed  by  those  laws  of  ne- 
cessity which  compel  all  nations  in  the  early  find  rude  state  of  their  langun^e, 
tt>  express  themselves  in  short,  detached  sentences,  empl<»yed  t/  as  a  vfrb 
whru  they  used  the  following  circumlocution  :  '•  My  son  will  reform.  Give 
that  fuel.  I  will  forgive  him."  But  in  the  present,  improved  state  of  our  l:uK 
gnage,  by  usin"  t/as  a  conjunction,  (for  I  maintain  that  it  is  one.)  we  expn*i«9 
tlio  same  ihouglit  more  briefly ;  and  our  modem  mode  of  r—  -  -  -  -i  has,  too, 
a  decisive  advantage  over  the  ancient,  not  only  in  p»int  <■■  .         hut  also 

in  per8t)icuity  and  force.     la  Scotland  and  the  north  of  i  -  >Tiie  pen 

pie  still  make  use  of  gin,  a  Ciintraction  of  ffiren  :  thus,  "  1  will   panlon  mv 
■ou,  gin  he  reform."     But  who  will  contend,  that  th»»y  speak  pure  English  I 
But  perhaps  the  advocatet  of  what  they  call  a  philosophical  development 
of  Wiguage,  will  ny,  that  by  their  resolution  of  sentences,  they  merely  suiv 


134  ETYMOLOOT   AlfD   SY1«TAX. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Joseph  and  his  brother  reside  in  New  York.  The  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  admonish  us  of  a  superior  and  superintending  Power. 
I  respt'ct  my  friend,  because  he  is  upright  and  obliging.  Henry 
and  William,  who  obey  their  teacher,  improve  rapidly.  Henry 
or  William,  who  obeys  his  teacher,  improves  very  fast.  Neither 
rank  nor  possession  makes  the  guilty  mind  happy.  Wisdom, 
virtue,  and  meekness,  form  the  good  man's  happiness  and  inte- 
rest :  they  support  him  in  adversity,  and  comfort  him  in  prospe- 
rity. Man  is  a  little  lower  than  the  angels.  The  United  States,  as 
justly  as  Great  Britain,  can  now  boast  of  their  literary  institutions. 

NoTt.  The  verb  J'orm  w  plural,  and  agrees  with  three  nouns  singular, 
con*iected  by  copulaUve  coujunctious,  accunliug  to  Rule  8.  The  rerb  com- 
fort  agrees  with  they  for  its  nomiuative.  It  is  connected  to  support  by  the 
conjunction  and,  agreeably  to  Rulk  34.  Angel*  is  nom.  to  are  understood, 
ana  Great  Britain  is  nom.  to  can  boast  understood,  according  to  Rule  35. 
REMARKS  ON  CONJUNCTIONS  AND  PREPOSITIONS. 

The  same  word  is  occasionally  employed,  either  as  a  conjunction,  an  ad> 
verb,  or  a  preposition.  ♦'  I  submitted, /or  it  was  in  Tain  to  resist ;"  in  this 
example,  for  is  a  conjunction,  because  it  connects  the  two  members  of  a 
compound  sentence.  In  the  next  it  is  a  preposition,  and  governs  victory  in 
the  objectiro  CAse :  "  He  contended  for  nctory  only." 

In  the  first  of  the  following  sentences,  since  is  a  conjunction ;  in  the  second, 
it  is  a  preposition,  and  in  the  third,  an  adverb  ;  "  Since  we  must  part,  let  us 
do  it  peaceably ;  I  have  not  seen  him  since  that  time ;  Our  frienoship  com- 
menced long  since.** 

"  He  will  repent  before  he  dies ;  Stand  before  mo ;  Why  did  you  not  re- 
turn before"  [that  or  this  time ;]  in  the  first  of  these  three  examples,  brfore  is 
an  adverbial  conjunction,  because  it  expresses  time  and  connects ;  and  in  the 
second  and  thirtl,  it  is  a  preposition. 

As  the  words  of  a  sentence  are  often  transposed,  so  are  also  its  members. 
Without  attending  to  this  circumstance,  the  learner  may  sometimes  be  at  a 
loss  to  perceive  the  eonneeUng  jwwer  of  a  preposition  or  conjunction,  for 
every  preposition  and  every  sonjunction  connects  either  words  or  phrases, 
sentences  or  members  of  sentences.  Whenever  a  sentence  begins  with  a 
prepositioa  or  conjunction,  its  members  are  trausiwsed  ;  as,  **  In  me  days  of 
Joram,  kin^  of  Israel,  flourished  the  prophet  Elisha ;"  "  Jf  thou  seek  the 
Lord,  he  will  be  found  of  thee ;  but,  if  thou  forsake  him,  he  will  cast  thee 
off  for  ever.** 

ply  an  ellipsis.  If,  by  an  elHpsis,  they  mean  such  a  one  as  is  necessary  to 
the  grammatical  construction,  I  cannot  accede  to  their  assumption.  In  teach- 
ing grammar,  as  well  as  in  other  things,  we  ought  to  avoid  extremes : — we 
ought  neither  to  pass  superficially  over  an  ellipsis  necessary  to  the  sense  of  a 
phrase,  nor  to  put  modem  English  to  the  blush,  by  adopting  a  mode  of  re- 
solving sentences  that  would  entirely  change  the  character  of  our  language, 
and  carry  tiie  learner  back  to  the  Tandalic  age. 

But  comes  from  the  Saxon  verb,  beon-utan,  to  be-out.  "  All  were  well  but 
(be-out,  leave-out)  the  stranger.**  "  Man  is  but  a  reed,  floating  on  the  current 
of  time."  Resolution  :  "  Man  is  a  reed,  floating  on  the  current  of  time ;  but 
{be-out  this  fact)  he  is  not  a  stable  being." 

And-^-aned,  eu'd,  and,  is  the  pjist  part,  of  ananad,  to  add,  join.     A,  an,  one. 


voifjtrwcTioNS.  126 

•'  When  coldnesfl  wraps  this  (nfTerin^  clay, 

"  Ab,  whither  strays  tne  immortal  muid  T" 
That  the  words  in,  if,  aud  when,  in  these  examplcH,  connect  the  members 
«jf  the  respective  sentcuces  to  which  they  are  attached,  will  obviously  appear 
if  we  restore  these  sentences  to  their  n»laral  order,  and  bring  these  particles 
hettccm  the  ni^ipbcrs  which  they  connect:  thus,  "  Eliaha  tlie  prophet  flour- 
i«.hed  t»  the  days  of  Joram,  king  of  Israel ;"  "  The  Lord  will  be  found  of 
lliee  if  thou  seek  him  ;  but  he  will  cast  thee  off  for  ever  if  thou  forsake  him:'* 

"  Ah,  whither  strays  the  immortal  mind, 

*•  IV hem  coldness  wraps  this  suffering  clay  T" 

As  an  exercise  on  this  lecture,  you  may  now  answer  these 
QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN  PARSING. 

From  what  words  is  the  term  conjunction  derired  ? — What  is 
a  sentence  ? — What  is  a  simple  sentence  ? — What  is  a  compound 
sentence? — Gire  examples. — In  what  respect  do  conjunctions 
and  prepositions  agree  in  their  nature  ? — How  many  sorts  of  con- 
junctions are  there  1 — Repeat  the  lists  of  conjunctions. — Repeat 
some  conjunctions  with  their  co/responding  conjunctions. — Do 
relative  pronouns  ever  connect  sentences  ? — Repeat  the  order  of 
parsing  a  conjunction. — Do  you  apply  any  Rule  in  parsing  a  con- 
junction ? — What  Rule  should  be  applied  in  parsing  a  noun  or 
pronoun  connected  with  another  ? — What  Rule  in  parsing  a  verb 
agreeing  with  two  or  more  nouns  singular,  connected  by  a  copu- 
lative conjunction  ? — What  Rule  when  the  nouns  are  connected 
by  a  disjunctive  ? — In  parsing  a  verb  connected  to  another  by  a 
conjunction,  what  Rule  do  you  apply  ? — Is  a  conjunction  ever 
used  as  other  parts  of  speech  t — Give  examples. — What  is  said 
of  the  words  fory  since,  and  before  f — What  is  said  of  the  trao*- 
position  of  sentences  ? 

or  one,  fn»m  the  same  rerb,  points  out  whatever  is  aned,  oned,  or  made  one. 
And  also  refers  to  tfa«  thing  that  '\b  joined  to,  added  to,  or  made  one  with,  soma 
other  person  or  thing  mentioned.  •*  Julius  and  Harriet  will  make  a  happy 
TMiir."  Resolution  :  "  Jnlins,  Harriet  joined,  vuited,  or  mued,  will  make  a 
tiajipy  pair  ;**  i.  e.  Harriet  made  one  with  Julius,  will  make  a  happy  jiair. 

For  means  eav»e. 

Bt-rause — be-caute,  is  a  compound  of  the  verb  be,  and  the  noun  eante.  It. 
rctniiis  the  meaning  of  both ;  as,  "  I  bcHeT©  the  maxim, /or  I  know  it  to  b« 
true  ;"— •<  I  believe  tho  maxtrn,  he-taute  I  know  it  to  bo  true  ;"  i.  e.  the  eans* 
of  mv  belief,  be,  or  •«,  I  know  it  to  bo  tnie. 

Snr  is  a  oontrnctioB  of  n»  or.  Ne  is  a  contraction  of  not,  and  or,  of  other. 
Nor  is,  not  o/Aef^•wi•e  :  •«/  in  the  other  way  or  manner. 

F.fse  is  tho  imperative  of  aleaan,  wnlegt,  of  ontetan,  and  U$t,  the  past  part. 
of  IcMan,  all  signifying  to  dismiss,  release,  loossn,  set  free.  "  He  will  be 
nunii'hed.  nnle$M  he  rei>eut ;" — "  Unlets,  release,  give  vp,  (the  fact)  he  rei)entii, 
no  will  l>«  punished." 

Thoujph  is  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  verb  tkafigan,  to  allow,  and  yet, 
of  prtan,  to  get.  Yet  is  simply,  get ;  ancient  g  is  our  modem  jr.  "  Though 
be  slay  mo,  yet  will  1  trust  In  bfm : — Qrant  or  allow  (tho  fact)  he  slaj  ms^ 
gelf  or  retain  (tba  op|x)«ita  fiict)  I  will  tiiist  iu  him." 


120  ETYMOLOGY   AND   BYlfTAJC. 

QUESTIONS  ON  Tfffi  PHILOSOPHICAL  MOTES. 
From  what  parts  of  speech  are  prepositions  and  conjnnctions  derived  f— • 
What  is  Home  Tooke's  opinion  of  lliat  7 — P'rom  what  is  each  of  the  follow- 
ing words  derived,  tkalf  if,  but,  €uuL,  because,  nor,  eUe,  unlets,  lest,  though, 
mild  jfet  t 


ZiECTIJRE  X. 
OF  INTERJECTIONS.— CASES  OF  NOUNS. 

Interjections  are  words  which  express  the  sud- 
den emotions  of  the  speaker ;  as,  "  Alas  !  I  fear  for 
hie ;"  "  O  death !  where  is  thy  sting  ?" 

Interjections  are  not  so  much  the  signs  of  thought,  as  of  feel- 
ing. Almost  any  word  may  be  used  as  an  interjection ;  but 
when  so  employed,  it  is  not  the  representative  of  a  distinct  idea. 
A  word  which  denotes  a  distinct  conception  of  the  mind,  must 
necessarily  belong  to  some  other  part  of  speech.  They  who  wish 
to  speak  often,  or  rather,  to  make  noises^  when  they  have  no  use- 
ful information  to  communicate,  are  apt  to  use  words  very  freely 
in  this  way ;  such  as  the  following  expressions,  la,  la  me,  myy  O 
my  J  O  dear,  dear  me,  surprising,  astonishing,  and  the  like. 

Interjections  not  included  in  the  following  list,  are  generally 
known  by  their  taking  an  exclamation  point  after  them. 
A  LIST  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  INXERJECTIONS. 

1.  Of  earnestness  or  grief ;  as,  O!  oh!  ah!  alas! 

2.  Contempt ;  as,  Pish  !  tush  ! 

3.  Wonder;  as,  Heigh  !  really  !  strange  ! 

4.  Calling;  as,  Hem!  ho!  halloo! 

5.  Disgust  or  'aversion  ;  as.  Fob !  fy  !  fudge !  away  ! 

PHILOSOPHICAL  NOTES. 
The  term  Interjection  is  applied  to  those  inarticulate  sounds  employed 
both  by  men  and  brutes,  not  to  express  distinct  ideas,  but  emotions,  pas- 
sions, or  feelings.  The  sounds  employed  by  human  bein^rs  in  groaning, 
sighin":,  crying,  screaming,  shrieking,  and  laughing,  by  the  aog  in  barking, 
pr»>whnff,  and  whining,  by  the  horse  in  snorting  and  neighing,  by  the  sheep 
m  bleating,  by  tlie  cat  in  mewing,  by  the  dove  in  cooing,  by  the  duck  iu 
quacking,  and  by  the  goose  iu  hissing,  we  sometimes  attempt  to  represent 
by  w^orus ;  but,  as  vritten  words  are  the  ocular  representatives  of  articidale 
sounds,  they  cannot  be  made  clearly  to  denote  inarticulate  or  indistinct 
noises.  Such  indistinct  utterances  belong  to  natural  language ;  but  they  fall 
bolow  the  boimds  of  regiilated  speech.  Hence,  real  interjections  are  not  a 
Dart  of  written  lansxiase. 


INTERJECTIONf.— ^PARSING. 

6.  Attention;  as,  Lo!  behold!  hark! 

7.  Requesting  silence ;  as,  Hush!  hist! 

8.  Salutation  ;  as,  Welcome  !  hail !  all  hail ! 

NoT«.  W«  frequently  meet  with  what  some  call  an  inttrjective  phrase  ; 
w.rh  as.  Ungrateful  wTetch !  impudenco  of  hope  !  folly  in  the  extreme  •  what 
ingratitude  !  away  witli  Ijira  ! 

As  the  intetjection  is  the  least  important  part  of  speech  in  the 
English  language,  it  will  require  but  little  attention.  You  may, 
however,  make  yourself  well  acquainted  with  what  has  been  said 
respecting  it,  and  then  commit  the 

SYSTEMATIC  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 
The  order  of  parsing  an  Interjection,  is — an 
interjection,  and  why  ? 

"  O  virtue !  how  amiable  thou  art ! " 

O  is  an  interjection,  a  word  used  to  express  some  passion  or 
emotion  of  the  speaker. 

The  ten  parts  of  speech  have  now  been  unfolded  and  eluci- 
dated, although  some  of  them  have  not  been  fully  explained.  Be- 
fore you  proceed  any  farther,  you  will  please  to  begin  again  at 
the  first  lecture,  and  read  over,  attentively,  the  whole,  observing 
to  parse  every  example  in  the  exercises  systematically.  You 
will  then  be  able  to  parse  the  following  exercises,  which  contain 
all  the  parts  of  speech.  If  you  study  faithfully  six  hours  in  a 
day,  and  pursue  the  directions  given,  you  may  become,  if  not  a 
critical,  at  least,  a  good,  practical  grammarian,  in  six  iceeks  ;  but 
if  you  study  only  three  hours  in  a  day,  it  will  take  you  nearly 
three  months  to  acquire  the  same  knowledge. 

.     EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

True  cheermlness  makes  a  man  happy  in  himself,  and  pro- 
motes the  happiness  of  all  around  him. 

Modesty  always  appears  graceful  in  youth  :  it  double*  the  lus- 
tre of  every  virtue  which  it  seems  tG  hide. 

The  meaning  of  thntc  words  commonly  called  interjectioai,  i*  •aaily  showw 
by  tracing  them  to  their  root*. 

PUk  and  p»kaw  are  the  Anglo-Saxon  paee^  paeea ;  and  are  •quivalent  Xm 
tmmperjf  !  u  e.  tromperie,  from  tromptr. 

Fy  or  Ae  \%  the  impeiativc,/o«,  the  part  teaae,  Kodfok  or  /augk,  the  past 
port,  of  the  Saxon  yerb/«fi.  to  hate. 

/^  ia  the  imperative  of  look.  Halt  is  die  hnperatiTo  of  kealdtn,  to  hold. 
FarrtrtU—'fare'iteU,  \m  a  compound  of  fa  ran,  to  go,  and  llie  adverb  vffU.  It 
Dieans,  to  ito  well.  Welcowu — veil-come,  signifies,  it  is  well  that  you  are 
<-r>Mc.  Adiem.  ooaaea  (rom  the  French  «  SHtu,  to  God ;  meaning,  I  commend 
ynu  to  God» 


128  BTTMOLOGT  AND  SYNTAX . 

He  who,  every  morning,  plans  the  transactions  of  the  day,  and 
follows  out  that  plan,  carries  on  a  thread  that  will  guide  him 
through  the  labyrinth  of  the  most  busy  life. 

The  king  gave  me  a  generous  reward  for  committing  that  bar. 
barous  act ;  but,  alas !  I  fear  the  consequence. 

E'en  now,  where  Alpine  solitudes  ascend, 
I  set  me  down  a  pensive  hour  to  spend ; 
And,  placed  on  high,  above  the  storm 'a  career, 
Look  downward  where  a  hundred  realms  appear : — 
Alas !  the  joys  that  fortune  brings, 

Are  trifling,  and -decay; 
And  those  who  mind  the  paltry  things, 
More  trifling  still  than  they. 
Note.     In  the  second  ■entence  of  the  foregoing  exercises,  which  is  gov. 
emed  by  the  verb  to  hid^,  according  to  Rulk  16.     He  i«  nom.  to  carries; 
who  is  nom.  to  plaiu.     FoUotr*  agrees  with  tcho  nnderHtood,  aiid  is  conuected 
to  plant  by  and ;  Rul«  34.     What  did  the  king  give  ?     A  reward  to  me. 
Then  reward  is  in  the  of>j.  c&se,  gov.  by  gave;  Rulk  20.     Me  is  gov.  by  to 
understood;    (^otk  1,  Rule  32.     The  phrase,  comntitting  that  barbarovt  act, 
is  gov.  by  for;  Note  2,  under  Rulb  28.     Hour  is  in  uic  ohj.  case,  gov.  by 
totpend;  Rolx  20.     Look  is  connected  to.$et  hy  and;  Rule  34.     Joys  w 
nom.  to  are.     That  is  gov.  by  brings;  Rulk   16.     Those  is  nom.  to  are 
imderstood.     They  is  nom.  to  are  understood  ;  Rulk  35. 

CASES  OF  NOUNS. 

In  a  former  lecture,  I  promised  to  give  you  a  more  extensive 
explanation  of  the  cases  of  nouns ;  and,  as  they  are,  in  many 
situations,  a  little  difficult  to  be  ascertained,  I  will  now  oflTer  some 
remarks  on  this  subject.  But  before  you  proceed,  1  wish  you  to 
parse  all  the  examples  in  the  exercises  just  presented,  observing 
to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  remarks  in  the  subjoined  Note. 
Those  remarks  will  assist  you  much  in  analyzing.  . 

A  noun  is  sometimes  nominative  to  a  verb  placed  many  lines 
after  the  noun.  You  must  exercise  your  judgment  in  this  mat- 
ter. Look  at  the  sentence  in  the  preceding  exercises  beginning 
with,  "  He  who,  every  morqing,"  &c.  and  see  if  you  ean  find 
the  verb  to  which  he  is  nominative.  What  does  he  do  ?  He 
carries  on  a  thread,  dec.  iZe,  then,  is  nominative  to  the  verb 
carries.  What  does  taJio  do  ?  Who  plans,  and  who  foUmos,  &c. 
Then  w?io  is  nom.  to  plans,  and  who  understood,  is  nominative  to 
follcnos, 

"  A  soul  without  reflection,  like  a  pile  " 
*'  Without  inhabitant,  to  ruin  runs." 

In  order  to  find  the  verb  to  which  the  noun  smd,  in  this  sen- 
tence, is  the  nominative,  put  the  question ;  What  does  a  soul 
irithout  reflection  do  l     Such  a  soul  runs  to  ruin,  like  a  pile  with 


HOM.  CAEB   INDEPENDEirf, — ^ABSOLUTS.  129 

out  inhabitant.     Thus  you  discover,  that  soul  is  nominative  to 
rwis. 

When  the  words  of  a  sentence  are  arranged  according  to  their 
natural  order,  the  nominative  case,  you  recollect,  is  placed  before 
the  verb,  and  the  objective,  after  it ;  but  when  the  words  of  a 
sentence  are  transposed ;  that  is,  not  arranged  according  to  their 
natural  order,  it  frequently  happens,  that  the  nominative  comes 
ajlcry  and  the  objective, ie/are  the  verb;  especially  in  poetry,  or 
when  a  question  is  asked :  as,  "  Whence  arises  the  misery  of  the 
present  world  ?  "  "  What  good  tlung  shall  \  do  to  inherit  eternal 
life?"  Put  these  expressions  in  the  declarative  form,  and  the 
nominative  will  precede^  and  the  objective  follow  its  verb  :  thus, 
**  The  misery  of  the  present  world  arises  whence  •  I  shall  do 
what  good  thing  to  inherit  eternal  life." 

"  Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 

"  Had,  in  her  sober  livery,  all  things  clad." 

"  Stern  rugged  nurse,  thy  rigid  lore 

"With  patience  many  a  year  she  bore." 
What  did  the  evening  do  ?  The  evening  came  on.  Gray  twi- 
light had  clad  what  ?  Twilight  had  clad  all  things  in  her  sober 
livery.  Evenings  then,  is  nom.  to  came^  and  the  noun  things 
is  in  the  objective  case,  and  gov.  by  had  clad :  Rule  20.  What 
did  she  bear?  She  bore  thy  rigid  lore  with  paticnce,/or, or dwr- 
ingy  many  a  year.  Hence  you  find,  that  lore  is  in  the  objective 
case,  and  governed  by  bore,  according  to  Rule  20.  Year  is 
gov.  by  during  understood:  Rule  32. 

A  noun  is  frequently  nominative  to  a  verb  understood,  or  in 
the  objective,  and  governed  by  a  verb  understood ;  as,  "  Lo,  [there 
is\  the  poor  Indian  !  whose  untutoi'ed  mind."  "  O,  the  pain  \there 
is!\  tlie  hliss  [ihtrtis^  in  dying!"  "All  were  sunk,  but  the 
wakeful  nigluingale  [was  not  sunk"]  "  He  thought  as  a  sage 
[tJiinkSf]  though  he  felt  as  a  man  [feels.'*]  "  His  hopes,  immor- 
thl,  blow  them  by,  as  dust  [is  blown  by."]  Rule  35  applies  to' 
those  last  three  examples. 

In  the  next  place  I  will  explain  several  cases  of  nouns  and 
pronouns  which  have  not  yet  come  under  our  notice.  Sometimes 
a  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  the  nominative  case  when  it  has  no 
verb  to  agree  with  it. 

OF  THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE  INDEPENDENT. 

Whenever  a  direct  address  is  made,  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  /o,  is  in  the  nommative  case  inde- 
pendent; as,  ^*  James,  I  desire  you  to  study." 


130     «  ETYMOLOOr  AND  BTNTAI. 

You  notice  that,  in  this  expression,  I  address  myself  to  Jamet, 
tliat  is,  I  speak  to  him  ;  and  you  observe,  too,  that  there  is  no  verb, 
either  expressed  or  implied,  to  which  James  can  be  the  nominative ; 
therefore  you  know  that  James  is  in  the  nom.  case  independent, 
according  to  Rule  5.  Recollect,  that  whenever  a  noun  is  of  the 
second  person^  it  is  in  the  nom.  case  independent ;  that  is,  inde- 
pendent of  any  verb  ;  as,  Selmay  thy  halls  are  silent ;  Love  and 
meekness,  my  lord^  become  a  churchman,  better  than  ambition ; 
()  Jerusalem^  Jerusalem^  how  often  would  I  have  gathered  thy 
children  together,  even  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under 
her  wings,  but  ye  would  not! — For  a  farther  illustration  of  this 
case,  see  Note  2,  under  the  5th  Rule  of  Syntax. 

NoTB.  When  a  pronoun  of  the  teeond  person  \b  in  apposition  with  a  noun 
independent,  it  is  in  the  same  case;  as,  "  Tkou  traitor,  I  detest  thee." 

OF  THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE  ABSOLUTE. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  placed  before  a  participle, 
without  any  verb  to  agree  with  it,  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case  absolute  ;  as,  "  The  sun  being  risen,  we 
pursued  our  journey." 

Sun  is  here  placed  before  the  participle  "  being  risen,"  and  has 
DO  verb  to  agree  with  it ;  therefore  it  is  in  the  nominative  case 
absolute,  according  to  Rule  6. 

NoTi  1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case  independent,  is  al- 
ways of  the  second  person ;  but,  in  the  case  absolute,  it  is  generally  of  the 
tktr.t  person. 

2.  The  case  absolute  is  always  nominative;  the  following  sentence  is 
tbeiofbre  incorrect ;  "  Whose  top  shall  tremble,  kim  descending,"  &c. ;  it 
should  be,  he  descending. 

OF  NOUNS  IN  APPOSITION. 

Two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns  signifying  the 

same  person  or  thing,  are  put,  by  apposition,  in  the 

same  case ;  as, "  Cicero,  the  great  orator,  philosopher, 

ant'  statesman  of  Rome,  was  murdered  by  Antony." 

opposition,  in  a  grammatical  sense,  means  something  added, 
or  names  added,  in  order  more  fully  to  define  or  illustrate  the 
sense  of  the  first  name  mentioned. 

You  perceive  that  Cicero,  in  the  preceding  example,  is  merely 
the  proper  name  of  a  man  ;  but  when  I  give  him  the  three' addi- 
tional  appellations,  and  call  him  a  great  orator,  philosopher,  and 
s'xitesman,  you  understand  what  kind  of  a  man  he  was ;  that  is, 


CASBS   OF   NOTJNS. — FARSITW.  131 

by  giving  him  these  three  additional  names,  his  character  and 
abilities  as  a  man  are  more  fully  made  known.  And,  surely, 
you  cannot  be  at  a  loss  to  know  that  these  four  nouns  must  be  in 
the  same  case,  for  they  are  all  names  given  to  the  same  person ; 
therefore,  if  Cicero  was  murdered,  the  orator  was  murdered,  and 
the  philosopher  was  murdered,  and  the  statesmari'wtia  murdered, 
because  they  all  mean  one  and  the  same  person. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  objective  case,  are  frequently  in 
apposition  ;  as.  He  struck  Charles  the  student.  Now  it  is  obvi- 
ous, that,  when  he  struck  Charles,  he  struck  the  student,  because 
Charles  was  the  student,  and  the  student  was  Charles  ;  therefore 
the  noun  student  is  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  "  struck," 
and  put  by  apposition  with  Charles,  according  to  Rule  7. 

Please  to  examine  this  lecture  very  attentively.  You  will  then 
be  prepared  to  parse  the  following  examples  correctly  and  syste- 
matically. 

PARSING. 

**  Weep  on  the  rocks  of  roaring  winds,  O  maid  of  Inistore." 

Maid  is  a  noun,  the  name  of  a  person— com.  the  name  of  a 
sort — fem.  gender,  it  denotes  a  female — second  pers.  spoken  to — 
aing.  num.  it  implies  but  one — and  in  the  nominative  case  inde- 
pendent, because  it  is  addressed,  and  has  no  verb  to  agree  with 
it,  according  to 

RuLB  5.  When  an  address  is  made,  the  noun  or  pronoun  ad- 
dressed, is  put  in  the  nominative  case  independent. 

"  The  general  being  ransomed,  the  barbarians  permitted  him  to 
depart." 

General  is  a  noun,  the  name,  6ic.  (parse  it  in  full :) — and  in  the 
nominative  case  absolute,  because  it  is  placed  before  the  participle 
"  being  ransomed,"  and  it  has  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  agreeably  to 

Rule  6.  A  noun  or  pronoun  placed  before  a  participle,  and 
being  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  in  the  nominative 
case  absolute. 

"  Thou  man  of  God,  flee  to  the  land  of  Judah." 

Thou  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — personal, 
it  personates  "  man  " — second  pers.  spoken  to — mas.  gender,  sing, 
num.  because  the  noun  "man"  is  for  which  it  stands  ;  Rule  13. 
(Repeat  the  Rule.) — Thou  is  in  the  nominative  case  independent, 
and  put  by  apposition  with  man,  because  it  signifies  the  same 
thing,  according  to 

Rule  7.  Two  or  more  nouns,  or  notms  and  pronouns,  signify^ 
iMg  the  same  thing,  are  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same  case. 


182  ETYMOLOGT   AND  SYNTAX. 

Man  is  in  the  nominative  case  independent,  according  to  Rulo 
6.     Flee  agrees  wiih  thou  understood. 

"Lo!  Newton,  priest  of  Nature,  shines  afar, 
"Scans  the  wide  world,  and  numbers  every  star." 

Newton  is  a  q^pun,  (parse  it  in  full,)  and  in  the  nominative  case 
to  "  shines :"  Rule  3. 

Priest  is  a  noun,  (parse  it  in  full,)  and  in  the  nom.  case,  it  is 
the  actor  and  subject  of  the  verb  "  shines,"  and  put  by  apposition 
with  "  Newton,"  because  it  signifies  the  same  thing,  agreeably 
to  Rule  7.     (Repeat  the  Rule.) 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Turn  from  your  evil  ways,  O  house  of  Israel  I  Ye  fields  of 
lij^ht,  celestial  plains,  yo  scenes  divinely  fair!  proclaim  your 
Maker's  wondrous  power.  O  king!  live  forever.  The  murmur 
of  thy  streams,  O  Lora,  brings  back  the  memory  of  the  past. 
The  sound  of  thy  woods,  Garmallar,  is  lovely  in  my  ear.  Dost 
thou  not  behold,  Malvina,  a  rock  with  its  head  of  heath  ?  Three 
aged  pines  bend  from  its  face  ;  green  is  the  plain  at  its  feet ;  there 
the  fiower  of  the  mountain  grows,  and  shakes  its  white  bead  in 
the  breeze. 

The  General  being  slain,  the  army  was  routed.  Commerce 
having  thus  got  into  the  legislative  body,  privilege  must  be  done 
away.  Jesus  had  conveyed  himself  away,  a  multitude  being  in 
that  place.  I  being  in  great  haste,  he  consented.  The  rain 
having  ceased,  the  dark  clouds  rolled  away.  The  Son  of  God, 
while  clothed  in  flesh,  was  subject  to  all  the  frailties  and  incon- 
veniences of  human  nature,  sin  excepted  j  (that  is,  sin  being 
excepted.) 

In  the  days  of  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  flourished  the  prophet 
Elisha.  Paul  the  apostle  suffered  martyrdom.  Come,  peace  of 
mind,  delightful  guest!  and  dwell  with  me.  Friends,  Romans, 
countrymen,  lifid  me  your  ears. 

Soul  of  the  just,  companion  of  the  dead ! 
Where  is  thy  home,  and  whither  art  thou  fled  ? 
Till  Hymen  brought  his  love-delighted  hour. 
There  dwelt  no  joy  iri  Eden's  rosy  bower: — 
The  world  was  sad,  the  garden  was  a  wild, 
And.  man  the  hermit  sighed,  till  woman  smiled. 

NoTt.  Thoie  verbs  in  Ualies,  in  the  preceding  examples,  are  all  in  the 
imperative  mood,  and  second  person,  agreeing  wnth  thou,  ye,  or  yon,  under- 
stood. House  of  Israel  is  a  noun  of  multitude.  Was  routed  and  must  be 
done  are  passive  verbs.  Artjled  is  a  neuter  verb  in  a  passive  form.  Ch*ked 
]■  tt  perfect  participle-     Till  is  an  adverbial  conjunction. 


MOOnS    OV    TBRBS.  133 

When  you  shall  hare  analyzed,  systematically,  every  word  in 
the  foregoing  exercises,  you  may  answer  the  following 

QUESTIONS  NOT  ANSWERED  IN   PARSING. 

Repeat  the  list  of  interjections. — Repeat  some  interjectJVe 
phrases. — Repeal  the  order  of  parsing  an  interjection. — In  order 
to  find  the  verb  to  which  a  noun  is  nom.  what  question  do  you 
put  ? — Give  e.xamplcs. — Is  the  nominative  case  ever  placed  after 
the  verb? — When? — Give  examples. — Does  the  objective  case 
ever  come  before  the  verb? — Give  examples. — Is  a  noun  ever 
nom.  to  a  verb  understood  ? — Give  examples. — When  is  a  noun  or 
pronoun  in  the  nom.  case  independent? — Give  examples. — Are 
nouns  of  the  second  person  always  in  the  nom.  case  independent  ?^ 
When  a  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  with  a  noun  independent, 
in  what  case  is  it  ? — When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nom.  case 
absolute  ? — Give  examples. — When  are  nouns  or  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same  case  ? — Give  examples. — 
In  parsing  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nom.  case  independent,  what 
Rule  should -be  applied? — In  parsing  the  nom.  case  absolute, 
what  Rule  ? — What  Rule  in  parsing  nouns  or  pronouns  in  appo- 
sition ? — Do  real  interjections  belong  to  written  language  ? — 
(Fhil.  Notes.) — From  what  are  the  following  words  derived,  pishj 
fi/f  lo,  halty  farewell^  welcome^  adieu  / 


LECTURE  XI. 

.  OF  THE  MOODS  AND  TENSES  OF  VERBS. 

You  have  now  acquired  a  general,  and,  I  may  say,  an  exten 
sive,  knowledge  of  nine  parts  of  speech  ;  but  you  know  but  little 
as  yet,  respecting  the  most  important  one  of  all ;  I  mean  the 
Verb.  I  will,  therefore,  commence  this  lecture  by  giving  you 
an  explanation  of  the  Moods  and  Tenses  of  verbs.  Have  the 
goodness,  however,  first  to  turn  back  and  read  over  Lecture  II., 
and  rertocl  well  upon  what  is  there  said  respccMng  the  verb  ;  after 
which  1  will  conduct  you  so  smoothly  through  the  moods  and 
ten.ses,  and  tlie  conjugation  of  verbs,  that,  instead  of  finding  your- 
self involved  in  obscurities  and  deep  intricacies,  you  will  scarcely 
find  an  obstruction  to  impede  vour  progress. 

12 


1S4  BTTMOLOOr  AWD  BTWTAX. 

I.  OF  THE  MOODS. 

The  Mood  or  Mode  of  a  verb  means  the  manner 
in  which  its  action,  passion,  or  being,  is  represented. 

When  I  wish  to  assert  a  thing,  positively,  I  use  the  declarative 
or  indicatwe  mode ;  as.  The  nnan  icalks  ;  but  sometimes  the  action 
or  occurrence  of  which  I  wish  to  speak,  is  doubtful,  and  then  I 
must  not  declare  it  positively,  but  I  must  adopt  another  mode  of 
expression ;  thus,  iifthe  man  walk,  he  will  refresh  himself  with 
the  bland  breezes.  This  second  nxxle  or  manner  of  representing 
the  action,  is  cailed  the  subjunctive  or  conditional  mode. 

Again,  we  sometimes  employ  a  verb  when  we  do  not  wish  to 
declare  a  thing,  nor  to  represent  the  action  in  a  doubtful  or  con- 
ditional manner ;  but  we  wish  to  command  some  one  to  act.  We 
tlien  use  the  imiperatioe  or  commanding  mode,  and  say.  Walk,  sir. 
And  when  we  do  not  wish  to  oomroand  a  man  to  act,  we  some- 
times allude  to  his  power  or  obiBty  to  act.  This  fourth  nwde  of 
representing  action,  is  called  the  potential  mode ;  as.  He  can 
walk ;  He  could  walk.  The  iif\h  and  last  mode^  called  the 
v^initive  or  unlimited  nKxie,  we  employ  in  expressing  action  in  an 
unlimited  manner ;  that  is,  without  confining  it,  in  respect  to  num- 
ber and  person,  to  any  particular  agent ;  as,  To  walk,  to  ride. 
Thus  you  perceive,  that  the  mood,  mode,  or  manner  of  represent- 
ing the  action,  passion,  or  being  of  a  verb,  must  vary  according 
to  the  different  intentions  of  the  min(f. 

Were  we  to  assign  a  particular  name  to  every  change  in  the 
mode  or  manner  of  representing  action  or  being,  the  number  of 
moods  in  our  language  would  amount  to  many  hundreds.  But 
this  principle  of  division  and  arrangement,  if  followed  out  in  de- 
tail, would  lead  to  great  perplexity,  without  producing  any  ben- 
eficial result.  The  division  of  Mr.  Harris,  in  his  Hermes,  is 
much  more  curious  than  instructive.  He  has  fourteen  moods ; 
his  interrogative,  optative,  hortative,  promissive,  precnuHve,  requisi- 
five,  enunciatire,  &c.  But  as  far  as  philosophical  accuracy  and 
the  convenience  and  advantage  of  the  learner  are  concerned,  it 
is  believed  that  no  arrangement  is  preferable  to  the  following. 
I  am  not  unaware  that  plausible  objections  may  be  raised  against 
it ;  but  what  arrangement  cannot  be  objected  to  ? 

There  are  five  moods  of  verbs,  the  Indicative,  the 
Subjunctive,  the  Imperative  the  Potential,  and  the 
Infinitive. 

The  Indicative  Mood  simply  indicates  or  de- 


MOODS  OP  ySRB9.  185 

dares  a  thing ;  as,  "  He  writes  ;"  or  it  asks  a  que»- 
tion  ;  as,  "  Does  he  write  ?  Who  wrote  that  ?  " 

.The  term  indicativet  comes  from  the  Latin  indico,  to  declare. 
Hencc,the  legitimate  province  of  the  indicative  mood,  is  to  declare 
things,  whether  positively  or  negatively  ;  thus,  positively,  He 
came  with  me  ;  negatively.  He  came  not  with  me.  But  in  order 
to  avoid  a  multiplication  of  moods,  we  extend  its  meaning,  and 
use  the  indicative  mood  in  asking  a  question ;  as,  Who  came  with 
you? 

The  subjunctive  mood  being  more  analogous  to  the  indicative 
in  conjugation,  than  any  other,  it  ought  to  be  presented  next  in 
order.  This  mood,  however,  differs  materially  from  the  indica- 
tive in  sense ;  therefore  you  ought  to  make  yourself  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  nature  of  the  indicative,  before  you  commence 
with  the  subjunctive. 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  expresses  action,  pas- 
sion, or  being,  in  a  doubtful  or  conditional  manner : 
or, 

When  a  verb  is  preceded  by  a  word  that  expresses 
a  condition,  doubt,  motive,  wish,  or  supposition,  it 
is  in  the  Subjunctive  Mood  ;  as,  "  If  he  study,  he 
will  improve ;  I  will  respect  him,  though  he  chide 
me ;  He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent ; 
Had  he  been  there,  he  would  have  conquered  f  (that 
is,  if  he  had  been  there.) 

The  conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  in  the  preceding  examples, 

press  condition,  doubt,  &c. ;  therefore,  the  verbs  study,  ekide, 
repent,  and  had  been,  are  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

Note  1.  A  verb  in  tliis  mood  is  generally  attended  by  anotlier  rerb  in 
■ome  other  mood.  You  observe,  that  each  of  the  first  three  of  the  preceding 
example*,  contains  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mood,  and  the  fiurth,  a  verb  in 
the  potential. 

2.  Whenever  the  conjunctions  if,  though,  vnlrs$,  except,  vhether,  lest,  or 
any  orhrn*.  tlnnote  contuigencv  or  doubt,  the  verbs  that  follow  thi'in  are  in 
tliA  ^  .•  ni4Mid  ;  a».  "  If  he  ride  out  everv  day,  his  health  will  proba- 

bly that  is.  if  he  shall  or  should  ri«lo  out  hereafter.     But  whon 

llii  tns  do  not  imply  doubt,  &c.  the  verbs  that  follnw  tli.>m  ;ir.»  in 

the  or  some  other  mcMnl ;   as.  "  Though  he  r»</''  his 

b«M  Iter."     The  conjunctive  and  indicative  forms  o;  .  aro 

expkiu(.ii  in  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  love.     See  page  14.'). 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  for  commanding, 
exhorting,  entreating,  or  permitting;  as,  ^^ Depart 


180  BT7MOLOGT   fLJXD  SYNTAX. 

thou;    Remember  my  admonitions;    Tarry   awhile 
longer  ;  Go  in  peace." 

The  verb  depart  expresses  a  command ;  remember  exhorts ; 
tarry  expresses  entreaty  ;  and  go,  permission  ;  therefore  they  are 
all  in  the  imperative  mood. 

The  imperative^  from  imperOy  to  command,  is  literally  that  mood 
of  the  verb  used  in  commanding ;  but  its  technical  meaning  in 
grammar  is  extended  to  the  use  of  the  verb  in  exhorting,  entreat- 
ing,  and  permitting. 

A  verb  in  the  imperative  mood,  is  always  of  the  second  person, 
tliough  never  varied  in  its  terminations,  agreeing  with  iliou,  ye,  oi 
you,  either  expressed  or  implied.  You  may  know  a  verb  in  this 
mood  by  the  sense ;  recollect,  however,  that  the  nominative  ia 
always  second  person,  and  frequently  understood ;  as,  George, 
give  me  my  hat ;  that  is,  give  thou,  or  give  you.  When  the 
nominative  is  expressed,  it  is  generally  placed  after  the  verb  ; 
as,  Gro  thou  ;  Depart  ye;  or  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb; 
as.  Do  Hioii  go ;  Do  ye  depart.     (Do  is  the  auxiliary.) 

Tlie  Potential  Mood  impHes  possibility,  liberty, 
or  necessity,  power,  will,  or  obligation  ;  as,  "  It  may 
rain  ;  He  may  go  or  stay  ;  We  must  eat  and  drink  ; 
I  can  ride  ;  lie  would  walk  ;  They  should  learnt 

In  the  first  of  these  examples,  the  auxiliary  may  implies  possi- 
bility ;  in  the  second  it  implies  liberty  ;  that  is,  he  is  at  liberty 
to  go  or  to  stay;  in  the  third,  vuist  denotes  necessity;  can  denotes 
power  or  ability ;  would  implies  will  or  inclination  ;  that  is,  he 
had  a  mind  to  walk  ;  and  should  implies  obligation.     Hence  you 

PHILOSOPHICAL   NOTES. 

The  changes  in  the  termination  of  words,  in  all  languages,  have  beet 
formed  by  the  coalescence  of  words  of  appropriate  meaning.  This  Pubjecl 
vra»  approached  on  page  49.  It  is  again  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of  show- 
ing,  that  the  moods  and' tenses,  as  well  as  the  number  and  person,  of  Eng- 
lish verbs,  do  not  solely  depend  on  inflection. 

The  coalescing  syllables  which  form  the  number  and  person  of  the  He- 
brew  verb,  are  still  considered  pronouns;  and,  by  those  who  have  investi- 
gated the  subject,  it  is  conceded,  that  the  same  plan  has  been  adopted  in  the 
Formation  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  verbs,  as  in  the  Hebrew.  Some  lan^iages 
iiave  carried  this  pnJcess  lo  a  very  great  extent.  Ours  is  remarkable  for  the 
small  number  of  its  inflections.  But  they  who  reject  the  passive  verb,  and 
those  moods  and  tenses  which  are  formed  by  employing  what  are  called 
"  auxiliary  verbs,"  because  they  are  formed  of  ttco  or  mote  verbs,  do  not  ap 
pear  to  reason  soundly.  It  is  inconsistent  to  admit,  that  waXk-elh,  and  walk- 
ed,  are  tenses,  because  each  is  but  one  word,  and  to  reject  have  walked,  and 
wLll  walk,  as  tenses,  because  each  is  comiwsed  of  two  words.     Eth,  as  pro 


MOODS.  It? 

perceive,  that  the  verbs,  may  rain,  may  go,  must  eat,  must  drink, 
can  ride,  would  walk,  and  should  learn,  are  in  the  potential  mood. 

Not*  1.  A»  a  verb  in  the  ludicatiTe  mmxl  is  conrerted  into  the  mibjuno 
live  when  it  is  pretxnleil  by  a  conjunctiun  expresaing  doubt,  contingency, 
supposition,  t&c,  so  a  Verb  in  the  potential  mood,  may,  in  like  manner,  be 
turned  into  the  stibjnnctive ;  as,  "  7f  I  eonid  deceive  him.  I  should  abhor  it; 
Though  he  should  increase  in  wealth,  he  would  not  l>e  charitable."  I  could 
deceive,  is  in  iho  ]K>lfulial ;  If  I  could  deceive,  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

2.  The  {X)teutiiil  mood,  as  well  as  the  indicative,  is  used  in  asking  a  ques- 
tion ;  as,  "  May  I  go  f     Could  you  underttand  him  T     Must  we  die  7" 

The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  action,  passion, 
or  being,  in  a  general  and  unlimited  manner,  having, 
no  nominative,  consequently,  neither  person   nor 
number ;  as,  "  To  speak,  to  walk.'^^ 

Infiniiive  means  uncon/ined,  or  unlimited.  This  mood  is  called 
the  infinitive,  because  its  verb  is  not  confined  or  limited  to  a  nom- 
inative. A  verb  in  any  other  mood  is  limited  ;  that  is,  it  must 
agree  in  number  and  person  with  its  nominative  ;  but  a  verb  in 
this  mood  has  7io  nominative,  therefore,  it  never  changes  its  termi- 
nation, except  to  form  thb  perfect  tense.  No<v  you  understand 
why  all  verbs  are  called  Jinile  or  limited,  excepting  those  in  the 
infinitive  mooJ. 

NoTK.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  is  oflen  tmderstood  before  the 
▼erb ;  aa,  "  Let  me  proceed  ;"  that  is,  Let  me  to  proceed.  See  Ror.«  25.  To 
h  not  a  preposition  when  joined  to  a  verb  in  this  mood  ;  thus,  to  ride,  to  rule; 
but  it  should  be  parsed  with  the  verb,  and  as  a  part  of  it. 

If  you  Study  this  lecture  attentively,  you  will  perceive,  that 
when  I  say,  I  write,  the  verb  is  in  the  indicative  mood  ;  but  when 
1  lay,  if  1  write,  or,  unless  I  write,  &c.  the  verb  is  in  the  sub- 

i'unctive  mood  ;  write  thou,  or  write  ye  or  you,  the  imperative ; 
may  write,  I  must  write,  I  could  write,  SfC.  the  potential ;  and 

▼kmsly  shown,  is  a  contraction  of  doelh,  or  haveth,  and  ed,  of  dede,  dodo, 
deed,  or  did ;  and.  therefore,  walk-<?M  ;  i.  e.  vfA\k-doeih,  or  doeth-walk,  and 
vrttik-ed :  i.  «.  w)ilk-</»V/,  <»r  dotd  or  rftcf-wnlk.  are.  when  analyzed,  an  strictly 
compound,  as  vill  walk,  shall  walk,  and  hove  walked.  The  only  difference 
in  tlie  foniiation  of  these  tenses,  is.  that  in  the  two  former,  the  ass^iciated 
verbs  have  been  contacted  and  m»ule  to  coalesce  with  the  main  verb,  but  ia 
U»e  two  latter,  thoy  still  maintain  their  ground  as  separate  words. 

If  it  be  said  that  teill  valk  is  coinposc<l  of  two  words,  each  of  which  con- 
Teys  a  distinct  idea,  nntl,  therefore,  should  be  analyzed  by  itself,  the  same 
argument,  with  all  its  ffrce,  may  be  ajiitlicd  to  -wxiSk-eth,  walk-rrf.walk-^ii/i. 
.or  did  walk.  The  result  of  all  the  investigations  of  this  subject,  np|v>nrs  to 
•ettle  down  into  the  hacknoyed  truism,  that  the  passive  verbs,  an<l  ' 
and  tcnws.  of  s«>nio  langtmgea,  are  f<»nned  by  inflections,  or  i. 
either  prefixed  or  postfized,  and  of  other  language*,  by  the  ai>.^' .  ii  ..  i 
auxiliary  verba,  which  bavo  not  jet  l>e«n  contrscted  and  made  to  ooaleic* 


188  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

to  wnUj  the  infinitive.  Any  other  verb  (except  the  defective) 
may  be  employed  in  the  same  manner. 

II.  OF  THE  TENSES. 

Tense  means  time. 

Verbs  have  six  tenses,  the  Present,  the  Imperfect, 
the  Perfect,  the  Pluperfect,  and  the  First  and  Second 
Future  tenses. 

The  Present  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  taking  place  at  the  time  in  which  it  is  men- 
tioned ;  as,  "  I  smile  ;  I  see  ;  I  am  seenJ*^ 

NoTK  1.  The  prewnt  tense  is  also  ased  in  speaking  of  actions  continued, 
with  occasional  intermissions,  to  the  present  tune ;  as,  "  He  ride*  out  everj 
morning." 

2.  This  tense  is  aometimes  applied  to  represent  the  actions  of  persons  long 
unce  dead;  at,  "  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  well ;  An  honest  man  is  the 
noblest  work  of  God." 

3.  When  the  present  tense  is  preceded  by  the  words,  when,  before,  after, 
eu  soon  as,  &c.  it  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out  the  relatire  time  of  a  future 
action  ;  as,  "  When  he  arrives  we  shall  hear  the  news." 

The  Imperfect  Tense  denotes  a  past  action  or 
event,  however  distant ;  or. 

The  Imperfect  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  past  and  finished,  but  witliout  defining  the 
precise  time  of  its  completion ;  as,  "  I  loved  her  for 
her  modesty  and  virtue ;  They  were  travelling  post 
when  he  met  them." 

In  these  examples,  the  verbs  laced  and  met  express  past  and 
flushed  actions,  and  therefore  constitute  a  perfect  tense  as  strictly 
as  any  form  of  the  verb  in  our  language ;  but,  as  they  do  not 

as  terminations.  The  auxiliary,  when  contracted  into  a  terminating  syllable, 
retains  its  diatiuct  and  intrinsic  meaning,  as  much  as  when  associated  with 
a  verb  by  juxtapogition :  consequently,  an  "  auxiliary  verb"  may  form  a  part 
of  a  mood  or  tens«,  or  passive  verb,  with  as  much  propriety  as  a  terminating 
syllable.  They  who  contend  for  the  ancient  custom  of  keeping  the  auxilia- 
ries distinct,  and  parsing  them  as  primary  verbs,  are,  by  the  same  principle, 
bound  to  extend  their  dissecting-knife  to  every  compound  word  in  the  language. 

Having  thus  attempted  briefly  to  prove  the  philosophical  accuracy  of  the 
theory  which  recognises  the  tenses,  moods,  and  passive  verbs,  formed  by  the 
aid  of  auxiliaries.  I  shall  now  ofter  one  argument  to  show  that  this  theory, 
and  this  only,  will  subserve  tlie  purposes  of  the  practical  grammarian. 

As  it  is  not  so  much  the  province  of  philology  to  instruct  in  the  exact 
meauin^  of  single  and  separate  words,  as  it  is  to  teach  the  student  to  com- 
bine and  employ  them  properly  in  framing  sentences,  and  as  those  combina- 
tions which  go  by  the  name  of  compound  tenses  and  passive  verbs,  are  ne- 
cessary ia  writing  and  discourse,  it  follows,- conclusively,  that  that  theory 


TENSES.  139 

define  the  precise  time  of  the  completion  of  these  actions,  their 
tense  may  properly  be  denominated  an  indefinite  past.  By  de- 
fining the  present  participle  in  conjunction  with  the  verb,  we  have 
an  impejfect  tense  in  the  expression,  were  travelling.  This  course, 
however,  would  not  be  in  accordance  with  the  ordinary  method 
of  treating  the  participle.  Hence  it  follows,  that  the  terms  im- 
perfect and  perjecty  as  applied  to  this  and  the  next  succeeding 
tense,  are  not  altogether  significant  of  their  true  character ;  but 
if  you  learn  to  apply  these  tenses  correctly ^  the  propriety  or  im- 
propriety of  their  names  is  not  a  consideration  of  very  great 
moment. 

The  Perfect  Tense  denotes  past  time,  and  also 
conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present ;  as,  "  I  have  fin- 
ished my  letter." 

The  verb  Jiave  finished^  in  this  example,  signifies  that  the  action, 
though  past,  was  perfectly  finished  at  a  point  of  time  immediately 
preceding,  or  in  the  course  of  a  period  which  comes  to  the  pres- 
ent. Under  this  view  of  the  subject,  the  term  perfect  may  be 
properly  applied  to  this  tense,  for  it  specifies,  not  only  the  com- 
pletion of  the  action,  but,  also,  alludes  to  the  particular  period  of 
its  accomplishment. 

The  Pluperfect  Tense  represents  a  past  action 
or  event  that  transpired  before  some  other  past  .time 
specified ;  as,  "  I  had  finished  my  letter  before  my 
brother  arrived." 

You  observe  that  the  verb  had  finished,  in  this  example,  repre- 
sents one  past  action,  and  the  arrival  of  my  brother,  another  past 
action  ;  therefore  had  finished  is  in  the  pluperfect  tense,  because 

which  does  not  explain  these  rerbs  in  their  combined  ^tate,  cannot  teach  the 
•tmlent  the  correct  use  and  application  of  the  Terbs  of  our  language.  By 
•uch  an  arrangement^.he  cannot  leani  when  it  is  proper  to  um>  the  phrases, 
ahaJl  have  walked,  mighi  have  gone,  have  teen,  instead  of,  $hall  valk,  might 
go,  and  $aw ;  because  this  theory  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  cnmhining  of 
verbs.  If  it  be  alleged,  that  the  speaker  or  writer's  own  good  sense  nrnst 
gnide  him  in  combining  these  verbs,  and,  then^fore,  that  the  directions  of  the 
grammarian  are  unnecessary,  it  must  be  recollected,  that  snrh  an  argument 
would  bear,  equally,  airainst  every  principle  of  grammar  whatever.     In  short, 

the  t' '  *^  -  -    -     1  iTid  tenses,  and  of  the  passive  vorb.  appears  to  he 

so  f  MIS  of  our  language,  and  so  pnictic-ally  ini{x)rtapt 

to  til  "  th<>  engines  of  the  paralogistic  spcculutor,  and 

the  pltiUxMtphical  i|ui  i^ter  it  down. 

But  the  most  plan-  ii  to  the  old  theory  it,  that  it  is  encumbered 

with  much  useless  teciiniciwity  and  tedioiu  prolixity,  which  are  avoided  by 
Cb«  fimpts  prooMi  of  exploding  die  peasive  verb,  and  reducing  the  number  of 


146  ETYMOLOOT  AWD  BFNTAX. 

the  action  took  place  prior  to  the  taking  place  of  the  other  past 
action  specified  in  the  same  sentence. 

The  First  Future  Tense  denotes  a  future 
action  or  event;  as,  "I  will  finish ;  I  shall 'finish 
my  letter." 

The  Second  Future  Tense  represents  a  future 
action  that  will  be  fully  accomplished,  at  or  before 
the  time  of  another  future  action  or  event ;  as,  "  ] 
shall  have  finished  my  letter  when  my  brothei 
arrives." 

This  example  clearly  shows  you  the  meaning  and  the  propei 
use  of  the  second  future  tense.  The  verb  "  shall  have  finished' 
implies  a  future  action  that  will  be  completely  finished,  at  oi 
before  the  time  of  the  other  future  event  denoted  by  the  phrase 
"  when  my  brother  arrives.^* 

NoTK.  What  is  mmetimes  called  tho  Inceptive  future,  is  expressed  thus 
"  I  am  pjjiug  to  vftite;*^  "  I  am  about  to  write.'*  Future  time  is  also  indi 
cated  by  pbiciug  the  iiifiuitive  present  immediately  after  the  indicative  prea 
ent  of  the  verb  to  be ;  thus,  "  I  am  to  write ;"  "  Harrison  is  to  be,  or  ough 
to  be,  commander  in  chief;"  '*  Harrison  is  to  command  the  army." 

You  may  now  read  what  is  said  respecting  the  moods  and  ten 
ses  several  times  over,  and  then  you  may  learn  to  eonjtigate  t 
verb.  But,  before  you  proceed  to  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  yoi 
will  please  to  commit  the  following  paragraph  on  the  Auxilian 
verbs,  and,  also,  the  stgiu  of  the  moods  and  tenses ;  and,  in  con 
jugating,  you  must  pay  particular  attention  to  the  manner  ii 
which  these  signs  are  applied. 

OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

Auxiliary  or  Helping  Verbs  are  those  by  the 
help  of  which  the  English  verbs  are  principally  con- 

the  moods  to  three,  and  of  the  tenses  to  two.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  ij 
we  reject  the  namet  of  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future  tenses,  the  name 
of  the  potential  and  subjunctive  moods,  and  of  the  passive  verb,  in  writin{ 
and.  discourse  we  must  still  employ  those  verbal  combinations  which  fom 
them ;  and  it  is  equally  certain,  that  the  proper  mode  of  employing  sucl 
combinations,  is  as  easily  taught  or  learned  by  the  old  theory,  which  name 
them,  as  by  the  new,  which  gives  them  no  name. 

On  philosophical  principles,  we  might,  p>erhap8,  dispense  with  the  futnr 
tenses  of  the  verb,  by  analyzing  each  word  separately  ;  but,  as  illustratod  oi 
page  79,  the  coml)ined  words  which  form  our  perfect  and  pluperfect  tense 
Lave  an  asxoriafed  meaning,  which  is  destroyed  by  analyzing  each  word  sepa 
rately.  That  arrangement,  therefore,  which  rejects  these  tenses,  appears  t« 
he,  not  only  vnpMlosopkieal,  but  inconsistent  and  inaccurate. 

For  the  satisfaction  of  those  toachers  who  prefer  it,  and  for  Iheir  adop 


SIGNS   OP  THB   HOODS  AND   TENSES.  141 

jugaled.  May,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  should, 
and  shall,  are  always  auxiliaries ;  do,  be,  have,  and 
will,  are  sometimes  auxiliaries,  and  sometimes  prin- 
cipal verbs. 

The  use  of  the  auxiliaries  is  shown  in  the  following  conju 
gation. 

SIGNS  OF  THE  MOODS. 

The  Indicative  Mood  is  known  by  the  sense,  or  by 
its  having  no  sign,  except  in  asking  a  question ;  as, 
"Who /oi;c5  you?" 

The  conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  except,  wheth- 
er, and  lest,  are  generally  signs  of  the  Suojurictive  ; 
2LS,  ^^  If  I  love;  unless  I  /oi;c,"  &;c. 

A  verb  is  generally  known  to  be  in  the  Impero' 
five  Mood  by  its  agreeing  with  thou,  or  ye  or  you, 
understood ;  as,  "  Love  virtue,  Bud  follow  her  steps ;" 
that  ir,  love  thou,  or  love  ye  or  you  ;  follow  thou,  &c. 

May,  can,  and  must,  might,  could,  would,  and 
should,  are  signs  of  the  Poteiitial  Mood ;  as,  "  I  may 
love  ;  I  mu^t  love  ;  I  should  love,"  &c. 

To  is  the  sign  of  the  Infinitive  ;  as,  "  To  love,  to 
smile,  to  hate,  to  walk." 

SIGNS  OF  THE  TENSES. 

The  first  form  of  the  verb  is  the  sign  of  the  pre- 
sent tense ;  as,  love,  smile,  hate,  walk, 

lion,  too,  a  modernize*!  phihsophieal  theory  of  the  moods  and  tenses  is  here 
prew«nted.  If  it  is  not  quite  so  convenient  and  useful  as  the  old  one,  they 
need  not  hesitate  to  auopt  it.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being  nrw ;  ana, 
moreover,  it  sounds  Uirife,  and  will  make  the  eommonalty  stare.  Let  it  be 
distinctly  understiKKl,  that  you  Xcach  *^  vhilotophical  f^ammar,  founded  on 
reason  and  common  tente"  and  you  will  pass  for  a  very  learned  man,  and 
make  all  the  gotxl  houKewives  wonder  at  the  rapid  uiarch  of  intellect,  and 
the  TMt  impruvemcuts  of  tlie  age. 

MOOD. 

VerlM  have  three  moods,  the  indicative,  (embracing  what  is  commonly  ia* 
eluded  under  the  indicative,  the  gfihjunctive,  and  the  potential,)  the  impera* 
tive,  and  the  infiuitive.-— For  definitions,  refer  to  the  body  of  the  work. 

TKNSK    OR    TIME. 

Verbs  have  only  two  tenses,  the  present  and  tlie  pa.tt. 

A  verb  expresMuig  action  commenced  and  not  compIete<l,  is  in  the  present 
taoM ;  as,  "  S«>li::i<in  soar$ :  it  ka*  gained  many  victories :  it  icili  [to]  carrf 
Ht  yotaries  to  the  bliitsful  regions." 


142  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

Ed — the  imperfect  tense  of  regular  verbs;  ai 
loved,  smiled,,  hated,  walked. 

Have — the  perfect ;  as,  have  loved. 

JIad — tlie  pluperfect ;  as,  had  loved. 

Shall  or  will — the  first  future ;  as,  shall  love,  o 
unll  love ;  shall  smile,  will  smile. 

Shall  or  will  have — the  second  future ;  as,  shal 
have  loved,  or  will  have  loved. 

NoTK.  There  are  aome  ozceptionfl  to  the«e  tigns,  which  jaa  will  notic 
by  referring  to  the  conjugation  m  the  potential  mood. 

Now,  I  hope  you  will  so  far  consult  your  own  ease  and  advar 
tage,  as  to  commit,  perfectly,  the  signs  of  the  moods  and  tense 
before  you  proceed  farther  than  to  the  subjunctire  mood.  If  yo 
do,  the  supposed  Herculean  task  of  learning  to  conjugate  verbs 
will  be  transformed  into  a  few  hours  of  pleasant  pastime. 

The  Indicative  Mood  has  six  tenses. 
The  Subjunctive  has  also  six  tenses. 
The  Imperative  has  only  one  tense. 
The  Potential  has  four  tenses. 
The  Infinitive  has  two  tenses. 

CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

The  CoNJUGATio!f  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  com 
bination  and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers 
persons,  moods,  and  tenses. 

The  Conjugation  of  an  active  verb,  is  stjled  th( 
active  voice  ;  and  that  of  a  passive  verb,  the  passive 
voice. 

When  a  verb  expresses  finished  action,  it  is  in  the  past  tense ;  as,  "  Thi 
page  (the  Bible)  God  hung  out  of  heaven,  and  retired" 

A  verb  in  the  imperative  and  infinitive  moods,  is  always  in  the  presen 
tense,  high  authorities  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  The  commajtd  mua 
necessarily  be  given  in  time  present,  although  its  fulfilment,  must  be  future 
John,  what  are  you  doing?  Learning  my  task.  Why  do  you  learn  it 
Because  ray  preceptor  commanded  me  to  do  so.  When  did  he  commam 
you  ?      Yesterday. -r-^ol  now,  of  course. 

That  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of  things  for  a  command  to  be  give: 
ia  future  time,  and  that  the  fulfilment  of  the  eomraand,  though  future,  ha 
nothing  to  do  with  the  tense  or  time  of  the  command  itself,  are  truths  S( 
plain  as  to  put  to  the  blush  the  gross  absurdity  of  those  who  identify  thi 
time  of  the  fulfilment  with  that  of  the  command. 


«ONJU0ATION   OP    VERBS.  143 

Verbs  are  called  Regular  wlien  they  form  their 
imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  their 
perfect  participle,  by  adding  to  the  present  tense  ed^ 
or  d  only  when  the  verb  ends  in  e  ;  as, 

Pres.  Tense.  Imp.  Tense.  Perf.  Participle. 

I  favor.  I  favored.  favored. 

I  love.  I  loved,  loved. 

A  Regular  Verb  is  conjugated  in  the  following  manner. 

To  Love. — Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 
Singular,  PluraL 

1.  Pejrs.  I  love,  •    1.  We  lovo, 

2.  Pert.  Thou  lovost,  2.  Ye  or  you  love, 
8.  Pcrs.  He,  she,  or  it,  loveth  )  3.  They  love. 

or  loves.  ) 

When  we  wish  to  express  energy  or  positiveness,  the  auxiliary  do  should 
precede  the  rerb  in  the  present  tenso :  tnua, 

Sinrular  Plural. 

1.  I  do  love,  1.  We  do  lore, 

5.  Thou  (lost  love,  2.  Ye  or  ron  do  lore, 

3.  He  doth  or  does  love*  3.  They  do  love. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  loved,  1.  We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  Ye  or  you  loved, 

3.  He  loved.  3.  They  loved. 
Or  by  prefixing  did  to  the  present :  thus, 

Simirniar.  Plural. 

1.  I  did  love,  1.  We  did  love, 

2.  Thoo  (lidst  love,  2.  Ye  or  you  did  love. 

3.  He  diil  love.  3.  They  did  love. 

XXERCISK9    III    PARSINO. 

You  may  read  the  book  which  I  have  printed. 

May,  an  irregular  active  verb,  signifying  "  to  have  and  to  exercise  might 
or  Btrength,"  mdic.  mood,  pres.  tense,  second  pers.  plur.  agreemg  with  its 
nom.  you.  Read,  an  irreffiilar  verb  active,  infinitive  mood,  pres.  tense,  with 
the  sign  to  understood,  referring  to  you  as  its  agent.  Have,  an  active  verb, 
signifying  to  jtotgein,  indie.  pn'!»ent.  and  having  for  its  object,  book  under- 
stood after  "  which."    Printed,  a  perf  participle,  referring  to  book  underslooil 

Johnson,  and  Blair,  and  Lowth,  would  have  been  laughed  at,  had  tbcy 
ettayed  to  thrust  any  thing  like  our  mcMlemizod  philosophical  grammar  down 
the  throats  of  tbeir  cotcmfM)rarie9. 

Would,  an  active  verb,  signifying  "  to  exercile  Tolition,"  in  the  past  tens* 
of  the  indicative.     Have,  a  verb,  in  the  infinitive,  to  understood.     Been  a  per 


144  ETVMOLOaY   AND   SYNTAX. 

Perfect  Tente. 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.  We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  lovod,  2.  Ye  or  you  have  loved 
8.  He  hath  or  has  loved.                     3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural 

1.  I  had  loved,  1.  We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  Ye  or  you  had  loved 
8.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved 

First  Future  Tense. 
Singular,  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love,  1.  We  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  wi 
8.  He  shall  or  will  love.  love, 

8.  They  shall  or  willlovi 
Second  Future  Tense* 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved,  1.  We  shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved,  2.  Ye  or  you  will   h&\ 
8.  He  will  have  loved.  loved, 

8.  They  will  have  love< 

Note.  Tenses  formed  withoat  aaziliaries,  are  called  simpie  tenses :  as, 
love ;  I  loved ;  but  those  formed  by  the  help  of  auxiliaries,  are  denominate 
compound  tenses ;  as,  I  have  loved ;  I  had  loved,  Sec. 

This  display  of  the  verb  shows  you,  in  the  clearest  light,  tl 
application  of  the  signs  of  the  tenses^  which  signs  ought  to  l 

rfectly  committed  to  memory  before  you  proceed  any  farthe: 
y  looking  again  at  the  conjugation,  you  will  notice,  that  hav 
placed  before  the  perfect  participle  of  any  verb,  forms  the  perfec 
tense ;  had,  the  pluperfect ;  shall  or  will,  the  first  future,  an 
so  on. 

Now  speak  each  of  the  verbs,  love,  hate,  walk,  smile,  rule,  an 
conquer,  in  the  first  person  of  each  tense  in  this  mood,  with  th 
pronoun  /  before  it ;  thus,  indicative  mood,  pres.  tense,  first  pen 
sing.  I  love ;  imperf.  I  loved ;  perf.  I  have  loved ;  and  so  oi 
through  all  the  tenses.     If  you  learn  thoroughly  the  conjugatio 

feet  part,  of  to  be,  referring  to  Johnson,  Blair,  and  Lowth.  Laughed  at,  per 
part,  of  to  laufrh  at,  referring  to  the  same  as  been.  Had,  active  Terb,  in  th 
past  tense  of  the  indicative,  agreeing  with  its  nom.  they.  Essayed,  per 
part,  referring  to  they. 

Call  this  **  philosophical  parsing,  on  reasoning  principles,  according  to  th 
original  laws  of  nature  and  of  thought,"  and  tne  pill  will  be  swallowed,  b 
pedants  and  their  dupes,  with  the  greatest  ease  imaginable 


CONJUOITION   OF    VERBS.  145 

of  the  vrrb  in  tho  indicative  nnood,  you  will  find  no  difficulty  in 
conjugating  it  through  those  that  follow,  for  in  the  conjugation 
through  all  the  moods,  there  is  a  great  similarity. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 
Present  Tense,  or  elliptical  future. — Conjunctive  form. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love,  1.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  ye  or  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love. 

Look  again  at  the  conjugation  in  the  indicative  present,  and 
you  will  observe,  that  the  form  of  the  verb  diflTcrs  from  this  form 
in  the  subjunctive.  The  verb  in  the  present  tense  of  this  mood, 
does  not  vary  its  termination  on  account,  of  number  or  person. 
This  is  called  the  conjunctive  form  of  the  verb ;  but  sometimes 
the  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present  tense,  is  conjugated  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  is  in  the  indicative,  with  this  exception,  iff 
thought  unlesSf  or  some  other  conjunction,  is  prefixed  ;  as, 

Indicative  form. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love,  1.  If  we  love, 

'2.  If  thou  lo vest,  2.  If  ye  or  you  love, 

8.  If  he  loves.  3.  If  they  love. 

The  following  general  rule  will  direct  you  when  to  use  the 
conjunctive  form  of  the  verb,  and  wheii  the  indicative.  When  a 
verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present  tense,  has  a  future  signifi- 
cation, or  a  reference  to  future  time,  the  conjunctive  form  should 
be  used;  as,  "If  thou  prosper,  thou  shouldst  be  thankful;'* 
"  He  will  maintain  his  principles,  though  he  lose  his  estate ;  ** 
that  is,  If  thou  shalt  or  shouldst  prosper ;  though  he  shall  or  should 
lose,  &:c.  But  when  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present 
tonse,  has  wo  reference  to  future  time,  the  indicative  form  ought 
to  be  used  ;  as,  "  Unless  he  means  what  he  says,  he  is  doubly 
faithless."  By  this  you  perocive,  that  when  a  verb  in  the  pres- 
ent tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  has  a  future  signification,  an 
auxiliary  is  always  understood  before  it,  for  which  reason,  in  this 
construction,  the  termination  of  the  principal  verb  never  varies  : 
as,  "  He  will  not  become  eminent,  unless  he  exert  himself;"  tha 
is,  unless  he  shall  exert,  or  should  exert  himself.  This  tense  o. 
the  subjunctive  mood  ought  to  bo  called  the  elliptical  future. 

The  imperfect,  the  perfect,  the  pluporfoet,  and  the  first  future 
tenses  of  this  mood,  are  conjugated,  in  every  respect,  like  tlie 
tame  tenses  of  tho  indicative,  with  this  exception  ; 'in  the  sul> 
^  13 


146  ITYMOLOGT    AlfD   STIfTAX. 

junctive  mood,  a  conjunction  implying  doubt,  6tc.  \a  prefixed  to 
the  verb. 

In  the  second  future  tense  of  this  mood,  the  verb  is  conjugated 
thus: 

Second  Future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  shall  have  loved,  1.  If  we  shall  have  loved, 

2.  If  thou  shah  have  loved,       2.  If  you  shall  have  loved, 

3.  If  he  shall  have  loved.  3.  If  tney  shall  have  loved. 
Look  at  the  same  tense  in  the  indicative  mood*,  and  you  will 

readily  perceive  the  distinction  between  the  two  conjugations. 

Impeeatitb  Mood. 
Singular.  PInral. 

2.  Love,  or  love  thou,  or  do       2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  you,  or 
thou  love.  do  ye  or  you  love. 

NoTB.     We  cannot  command,  exhort,  ^.  either  in  past  or  future  time ; 
tierefore  a  verb  in  tliia  mood  is  always  iu  the  preseTtt  teuae. 

Potential  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  PhtraJ. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  love,       1.  We  may,  can,  or  must  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must    2.  Ye  or  you   may,  can,  or 

love,  must  love, 

S.  He  may,  can,  or  must  love.     3.  They  may,  can,  or  must 

love. 
Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1,  I  might,  could,    would,  or     1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  love,  should  love, 

2.  Thou     mightst,     couldst,       2.  Ye  or  you  might,   could, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  love,  would,  or  should  love, 

8.  He  might,  could,  would,  or     3.  They  might,  could,  would, 
should  love.  or  should  love. 

Pel  feet  Tense. 
'  Singular.  *  Plural. 

1.  1  may,  can,  or  must  have     1.  We  may,  can,  or  must  have 

loved,  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must     2.  Ye  or  you  may,  can,  or 

have  loved,  must  have  loved, 

S    He    may,    can,    or    roust      3.  They  may,  can,  or  must 
have  loveo.  have  loved. 


CONJUGATION    Of    VERBS,  147 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Shigular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  fcoulJ,  would,  or     1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  luved,  should  have  loved, 

9.  Thou     mightst,    couldst,         2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, 
wouldst,    or    ahouldst  would,  or  should  have 

have  loved,  loved, 

8.  He  might,  could,  would,         3.  They  might,  ctJuld,  would, 

or  should  have  loved.  or  should  have  loved. 

By  examining  carefully  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  through 
thiswiood,  you  vill  find  it  very  easy;  thus,  you  will  notice,that 
whenever  any  of  the  auxiliaries,  may,  canj  or  must,  is  placed 
before  a  verb,  that  verb  is  in  the  potential  mood,  present  tense  ; 
miglU,  could,  would,  or  should,  fenders  it  in  the  potential  mood, 
imperfect  tense  ;  may,  can,  or  must  have,  the  perfect  tense ;  and 
might,  could,  would,  or  should  have,  the  pluperfect  tense. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Pres.  Tense.     To  love.  Perf.  Tense.     To  have  loved. 

Participles. 
Present  or  imperfect,  Loving. 

Perfect  or  passive,  Loved. 

Compound,  Having  loved. 

Note.  The  perfect  participle  of  a  regular  verb,  corresponds  exactly  with 
the  imperfect  tense ;  yet  the  former  may,  at  all  times,  be  distinguished  from 
the  latter,*  by  the  following  nile :  In  composition,  the  imperfect  tense  of  a 
▼erb  always  has  a  numiuaUve,  either  expr«ssed  or  implied  :  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple nevtr  has. 

For  your  encouragement,  allow  me  to  inform  you,  that  when 
you  shall  have  learned  to  conjugate  the  verb  to  love,  you  will  be 
able  to  conjugate  all  the  regular  verbs  in  the  English  language, 
for  they  are  all  conjugated  precisely  in  the  same  manner.  By 
pursuing  the  following  direction,  you  can,  in  a  very  short  time, 
learn  to  conjugate  any  verb.  Conjugate  the  verb  love  through 
all  the  moods  and  tenses,  in  the  first  person  singular,  with  the 
pronoun  /  before  it,  and  speak  the  Participles :  thus.  Indicative 
mood,  pres.  tense,  first  pers.  sing.  I  love,  imperf.  tense,  I  loved  • 
perf.  tense,  I  have  loved  :  and  so  on,  through  every  mood  ar. 
tense.  Then  conjugate  it  in  the  second  pers.  sing,  with  the  pro- 
noun thou  before  it,  through  all  the  moods  and  tenses;  thus.  In 
die.  mood,  pres.  tense,  second  pers.  sing,  thou  lovest ;  imporf. 
tense,  thou  lovedst :  and  so  on,  through  the  whole.  After  that 
conjugate  it  in  the  third  pers.  sing,  with  he  before  it ;  and  then  in 
the  first  pers.  plural,  with  we  before  it,  in  like  manner  through 
all  the  moods  and  tenses.     Although  this  mode  of  procedure  mny 


148 


KTTMOLOOY  UfD  STITTAX. 


At  first,  appear  to  be  laborious,  yet,  as  it  is  necessary,  I  trust  you 
will  not  hesitate  to  adopt  it.  My  confidence  in  your  perseve- 
rance, induces  me  to  recommend  any  course  which  I  know  will 
lend  to  facilitate  your  progress. 

When  you  shall  have  complied  with  my  requisition,  you  may 
conjugate  the  following  verbs  in  the  same  manner;  wTiich  will 
enable  you,  hereafter,  to  tell  the  mood  and  tense  of  any  verb 
without  hesiTation :  walk,  hate,  smile,  rule,  conquer,  reduce,  relate 
melt,  shun,  fail. 


LECTIJRI]   XTT 


OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Irregular  verbs  are  those  that  do  not  form 
their  imperfect  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  the 
addition  of  d  or  ed  to  the  present  tense ;  as, 


Pret.  Tente 

Imperf. 

Tetue 

Perf.  or  Past.  Part. 

I  write 

1  wrote 

written 

I  begin 

I  began 

begun 

Igo 

I  went 

gone 

The  following  is  a 

list  of  the  irregular  verb*. 

Tho«e  marked  with  an  R 

■re  sometimea  conjugated  regularly 

Pre*.  Terute. 

Imperf. 

Tente. 

Perf.  or  Past.  Part. 

Abide 

abodr 

abode 

Am 

was 

^been 

AriM 

arose 

arisen 

Awak« 

awoke,  B 

awaked 

Bear,  to  hHng  forth 

bars 

bom 

Bear,  to  carry 

bore 

borne 

Beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

Begin 

Degan 

begun 

Bend 

bent 

bent 

Bereave 

bereft,  R. 

bereft,  R. 

Beseech 

besought 
bade,l)id 

besought 

Bid 

bidden,  bid 

Bind 

bound 

bound 

Bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Blow 

-    blew 

Mown 

Break 

broke 

broken 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Brinff 
Build 

brought 

brought 

built 

built 

Burst 

burst,  R. 

burst.  R. 

Bny 

bought 

boii5jrht 

IRREGULAE   VERBS. 


140 


Prt§.  Ttm9§, 

Imperf.  Tetue. 

Perf.  or  Pau,  Pmri. 

C«M 

cast 

cast 

Catch 

caught,  R. 
chid 

caught,  R. 
chidden,  chid 

Chide 

Chooae 

chose 

chosen 

CleaTe,  to  adhere 

clave,  R. 

cleaved 

Cleave,  to  tplU 

cleft  or  clove 

cleft,  cloven 

Cling 
Clothe 

clung 
clothed 

clung 
clad,  R. 

Come 

came 

come 

Coat 

cost 

cost 

Crow 

crew,R. 

crowed 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Dare,  to  venture 

durst 

dared 

Dare,  to  challenge 

Reoumr 

Deal 

dealt,  R. 

dealt,  R. 

B? 

&«■ 

dug,  R. 
done 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Drink 

drank 

drunk,  drank,* 

DweU 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelt,  R. 

l-:at 

eat,    te 

eaten 

KaU 

fell 

fallen 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Keel 

felt 

felt 

Fiuht 

fought 

foTight 

Find 

found 

found 

Flee 

fled 

flt-a 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Freese 

froze 

frozen 

(iel 

got 

g"tt 

Gild 

gilt,R. 

gilt,  R. 

Gird 

ghrt,R. 

girt,  R. 

Give 

gave 

given, 

Go 

went 

gone 

Grave 

graved 

graven,  R. 

Grind 

ground 

Grow 
Have 

Sd" 

^r 

Hang 

hung,  R. 

hung,  R.  ■ 

}le»r 

heanl 

heanl 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn,  R. 

Hide 

hid 

hidden  hid 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Hold 

held 

held 

Hurt 

hart 

hurt 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Knit 

knit^R. 

knit,R. 

*  The  men  were  dnmk ;  i.  e.  inebriated.     The  toasts  were  drank. 
\  QoUaa  k  xuemAf  obtdMU*    It*  compoimd  forgotten,  is  still  in  good 


150 


«TVM0LO«r  AKD  STWTAX. 


PTt$.    TtfUM 

Tmperf  TVsM. 

Perf,  or  Pan.  PaH. 

Know 

knew 

known 

Lado 

laded 

laden 

Uy 

laid 

laid 

T.nnd 

led 

led 

Leave 

left 

left 

Lend 

lent 

lent  * 

Lot 

let 

let 

Lie.  to  tit  down 

i«r 

lain 

Load 

loaded 

laden,  R. 

LOM 

loat 

lost 

Make 

mMie 

made 

Meet 

met 

met 

Mow 

mowed 

mown.  R. 

ray 

paid 

paid 

Put 

put 

pat 

Read 

{«ad 

read 

Keod 

reot 

rent 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Ride 

rode 

rode.riddeB« 

Ring 

rung,  rang, 

rung 

Riite 

rose 

risen 

Mro 

rived 

nven 

Run 

nn 

ran 

Saw 

aawed 

sawn,E. 

Say        . 

«id 

■aid 

See   - 

WW 

•een 

Seek 
SeU 

sr 

sr 

Send 

•ent 

•ent 

Set 

■et 

set 

Shake 

•hook 

shaken 

Shape 

•baped 

shaped, shapen 

Shave 

shaved 

shaven,  R. 

Shear 

•heared 

shorn 

Shed 

abed 

shed 

Shine 

shone,  R 

shone,  R 

Show 

showed 

shown 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Shrink 

shnmk 

shrunk 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sung,  sang.f 
sunk,  8ank,t 

sung 
sunk 

Sit 

sat 

set 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Sleep 

ff 

slept 
sliddem 

Slide 

Slin- 
Slink 

slung, 
Bhnik 

slang 
sltii^ 

Slit 

slit,  R. 

8lit,R 

•  Ridden  is  nearly  obsolete. 

t  Sang  and  sank  sQiouId  not  be  used  in  familiar  s^le. 


lEREGULAR   YBKM. 


161 


Prtt.  Tenae. 

Imperf.  Tem»e. 

Perf.  or  P<ua.  Part, 

Smite 

smote 

smitten 

Sow 

sowed 

sown,  R. 

S|.rak 

BiMjko 

spoken 

SlM'cd 

sped 

sped 

8{>eDd 

Bj>eiit 

spent 

8(Hll 

spilt,  a. 

spilt,  R. 

Spia 

spun 

spun 

8pit 

spit,  spat 

spit,  spitten,* 

Split 

split 

split 

Spread 

spread 

spread 

Spring 

spruHg,  sprang 

spnmg 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Steal 

stole 

stolea 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Stirij^ 

stung 
stunk 

stunff 
stunk 

Stink 

Stride 

strode,  strid 

stridden 

Strike 

struck 

struck  or  stricken 

Striug 

•trung 

stnmg 

Strive 

«|6>e 

striven 

Strow  or 

strew 

strewed  or  strewed 

<  strown,  strowed, 
I       or  sln»wed 

Sweat 

swet,  B. 

swet,  R. 

Swear 

swore 

sworn 

Swell 

•welled 

swollen,  R. 

Swim 

swum,  swam 

swum 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Take 

took 

taken 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tear 

tore 

torn 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Thrive 

throve,  B. 

thriven 

Throw 

threw 

thrown   • 

rhrurt 

tlirust 

thrust 

Tread 

trod 

trcnlden 

Wax 

waxed 

waxen,  R. 

Wear 

wore 

worn 

Weave 

WOT0 

woven 

Wet 

wet 

wet.R. 

YUr? 

wept 

wept 

Win 

won 

won 

Wind 

IKTOUnd 

wound 

W(,rk 

wrought,  worked 

wrought,  worked 

jj;'-!"? 

wrung 

wniiij^ 

Write 

wrote 

written. 

In  faiiifliar  wntuig 

and  discourse,  the  following 

,  and  flonie  otlier  verbs,  are 

often  ita[ 

properly  tenninat*Ht  by  t  instead  of  ed 

;  a.\  "learnt,  spelt,  spilt. 

•topt,  la'-chu"     they 

should  lie,  "  learned,  spelled,  spilled,  stopjwd,  latched." 

You 

may  now 

colli ii^at«»  tlio  following 

irregular  verbs,  in  a 

manner 

similar  to  the  ccmju^ation  of  r 

epul 

ar  verbs  :  arise,  hegin^ 

bhtdf  do, 

,  go,  grow,  run,  lend,  teach,  write. 

Thus,  to  arise — Indicative 

Spitten  is  nearly  obsoleia. 


163  ETYMOLOGT   AlfD   STNTIX. 

mood,  pres.  tense,  first  pcrson,sing.  I  arise  ;  imperf.  tense,  I  arose ; 
perf.  tense,  I  have  arisen,  and  so  on,  through  all  the  moods,  and 
all  the  tenses  o(  each  mood  ;  and  then  speak  the  participles :  thus, 
pres.  arising,  perf.  arisen,  comp.  having  arisen.  In  the  next 
place,  conjugate  the  same  verb  in  the  second  person  sing,  through 
all  the  mootls  and  tenses;  and  then  in  the  third  person  sing,  and 
uv  the  first  pers.  plural.  After  that,  you  may  proceed  in  the 
Bame  manner  with  the  words  begin,  hind,  &c. 

Now  read  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  lectures  fmtr  or  Jive  times 
over,  and  learn  the  order  of  parsing  a  verb.  You  will  then  be 
prepared  to  parse  the  following  verbs  in  full ;  and  I  presume,  all 
the  other  parts  of  speech.  Whenever  you  parse,  you  must  refer 
to  the  Compendium  for  definitions  and  rules,  if  you  cannot  repeat 
them  without.  I  will  now  parse  a  verb,  and  describe  all  its  pro- 
perties by  applying  the  definitions  and  rules  according  to  the 
systematic  onder. 

*'  We  could  not  accomplish  the  business." 

Covld  accomplish  is  a  verb,  a  word  which  signifies  to  do — active, 
it  expresses  action — transitive,  the  action  passes  over  from  the 
nom.  "  we"  to  the  object  "business" — regular,  it  will  form  its 
imperfect  tense  of  the  indie,  mood  and  perf  part,  in  ed — poten- 
tial mood,  it  implies  possibility  or  power — imperfect  tense,  it  de- 
notes past  time  however  distant — first  pers.  plural,  because  the 
nom.  "  we  "  is  with  which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to  Rule  4.  A 
verb  must  agree,  &c.  Conjugated — Indie,  mood,  present  tense, 
first  pers.  sing.  I  accomplish;  imperfect  tense,  I  accomplished; 
perfect,  I  have acconlplished  ;  pluperfect,  I  had  accomplished;  and 
so  on. — Speak  it  in  the  person  of  each  tense  through  all  the 
moods,  and  conjugate,  in  the  same  manner,  every  verb  you  parse. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

These  e'xereiscs  contain  a  complete  variety  of  Moods  and  Tenses. 

I  learn  my  lesson  well.  Charles,  thou  Icarnest  thy  Icsswi 
badly.  John,  do  you  write  a  good  hand  ?  Those  ladies  wrote  a 
beautiful  letter,  but  they  did  not  despatch  it.  Have  you  seen  the 
gentleman. to  whom  I  gave  the  book  ?  He  has  gone.  They  had 
received  the  news  before  the  messenger  arrived.  When  will 
those  persons  return  ?  My  friend  shall  receive  his  reward.  He 
will  have  visited  me  three  times,  if  he  come  to-morrow. 

If  Eliza  study  diligently,  she  will  improve.  If  Charles  studies 
he  does  not  improve.  Unless  that  man  shall  have  accomplished 
his  work  by  midsummer,  he  will  receive  no  wages.  Orlando, 
obey  my  precepts,  unless  you  wish  to  injure  yourself.  Remem- 
ber what  is  told  you.     The  physician  may  administer  the  medi- 


AFXILIART    VERBS.  153 

cine,  but  Providence  only  can  bless  it.  I  told  him  that  might 
go,  but  he  would  not.  He  might  have  gone  last  week,  had  he 
conducted  himself  properly  ;  (that  is,  if  he  had  conducted,  &c.) 
Boys,  prepare  to  recite  your  lessons.  Young  ladies,  let  me  hear 
you  repeat  what  you  have  learned.  Study,diligently,  whatever 
task  may  be  allotted  to  you.  To  correct  the  spirit  of  discontent, 
let  us  consider  how  little  we  deserve.  To  die  for  one's  country, 
i.s  glorious.  How  can  we  become  wise  ?  To  seek  God  is  wis- 
dom. What  is  true  greatness  ?  Active  benevolence.  A  good 
nidh  is  a  great  man. 

NoTK  1.  Man,  fulIowiDg  great,  and  what,  in  tho  last  two  examples,  are 
n«»m.  after  w :  Rulk  21.  To  seek  Ood,  and  to  die /or  one's  country,  are  mcm- 
heni  of  sentences,  each  put  as  the  nom.  ca^e  to  it  respectively:  Rule  24. 
Tbo  verb  to  correct  is  the  infinitive  mood  absolute :  Note  imder  Role  23. 
May  be  allotted  is  a  passive  verb,  agreeing  with  ickieh,  the  relative  part  of 
whatever.  That,  the  first  part  of  whatever,  is  an  adj.  pronoim,  agreeing  with 
f'isk;  and  taak  is  governed  by  study.  Hear,  following  let,  and  repeat,  follow- 
ing hear,  are  in  the  infinitive  mood  without  the  sign  to,  according  to  Rule 
2.'i.  To  recite  is  govenied  by  prepare  :  Rule  23.  /*  told,  is  a  passive  verb, 
agreeing  wiih  which,  the  relative  part  of  whatever;  and  you,  following,  ii 
govemetl  by  to  understood :  Note  1,  mider  Rule  32. 

2.  In  parsing  a  pronoun,  if  the  noim  for  which  it  stands  iA  not  expreaaed, 
you  must  my  it  represents  some  person  or  thing  miderstood. 


LECTURE  XIII. 

OF  THK  AUXILIARY,  PASSIVE,  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

I.  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

Before  you  attend  to  the  following  additional  remarks  on  the 
Au.xiliary  Verbs,  you  will  do  well  to  read  again  what  is  said 
respecting  them  in  Lecture  XI.  page  140.  The  short  account 
there  given,  and  their  application  in  conjugating  verbs,  have 
already  made  them  quite  familiar  to  you  ;  and  you  have  undoubt- 
edly observed,  that,  without  their  help,  we  cannot  conjugate  any 
verb  in  any  of  the  tenses,  except  the  present  and  imperfect  of  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,  and  the  pre.sent  of  the  imf)era- 
tivo  and  infinitive.  In  the  formation  of  all  the  other  tenses,  they 
are  brought  into  requisition. 

Most  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  are  defective  in  conjugation ;  that 
is,  they  are  used  only  in  some  of  the  moods  and  tenses ;  and 
when  unconnected  with  principal  verbs,  they  are  conjugated  in 
the  following  manner: 

MAY. 


r'io«.  (  Sittg.  I  may.  thou  maytt,  he  may 

Tvuse.  I  Plur.  We  may,  yo  or  you  may,  tney 


may. 


IM 


KTTMOLOGY    AND   STNTAI. 


Imperf. 
Teuaei 


Pre*. 

TeoM. 

Imperf 

TODM. 


Pros 
'I'""n*a 
]iii[)erf 
Teaae. 


Pies. 
Teuse. 
Imfierfl 
Teuse. 


Pros. 

TCTISO. 

Imperf. 
Teu*e. 


Pre«. 
Tenae. 

Imperf. 
Teuse. 


{  Sinff.  I  might,  Uioa  mightst,  he  might 

I  Plur.   W©  might,  ye  or  you  might,  they  might 

CAN. 


Pres. 
Tense. 
Imperf. 
Tense. 


5  l>ing.  I  can,  thou  canst,  he 


Plur. 


J  Sinff. 
\  Ptur. 
\  Sing. 
>  Plur. 


lur.  We  can,  ye  or  you  can,  they  can. 
£^111^.  I  could,  thou  couldst,  he  could. 

We  could,  ye  or  you  could,  they  could. 

WILL. 

I  will,  thou  wilt,  he  wiU. 

We  will,  ye  or  you  will,  they  wilL 

I  would,  thou  wouldst,  he  would. 

We  would,  ye  or  you  would,  they  would 

SHALL. 

<  Sing.  I  shall,  thou  shalt,  he  shall. 

I  Plur.  We  shall,  ye  or  you  shall,  they  shall. 

<  Sing.  I  should,  thou  shouldst,  he  should. 

I  Plur.  We  sliould,  ye  or  you  should,  they  should. 

TO  DO. 

(  Sing.  I  do,  thou  dost  or  doest,  he  doth  or  does. 
I  Plur.  We  do,  ye  or  you  do,  they  do. 

<  Sing.  I  did,  thou  didst,  he  did. 

(  Plur.  We  did,  ye  or  you  did,  they  did. 

PariieipUt.     Pros.  dobg.     Perf.  done. 

TO  BE. 

(  Sing.  I  am,  thou  art,  he  is. 
I  Plur.  We  are,  ye  or  you  are,  they  are. 
(  Sing.  I  was,  thou  wast,  he  was. 
I  Plur.  We  were,  ye  or  you  were,  they  were.  • 
ParlieipUs.      Pres.  being.     Perl.  "been. 


TO  HAVE. 

<  Sing.  I  have,  thou  hast,  he  hath  or  has. 
I  Plur.  We  hare,  ye  or  you  have,  they  have. 
(  Sing.  T  had,  thou  hadst,  he  had. 
(  Plur.  We  had,  ye  or  you  liad,  they  had. 

Participles.     Pres.  having.     Perf.  had. 

Do,  hty  ^ve,  and  will,  are  sometimes  used  as  principal  rerbs; 
and  when  employed  as  such,  do,  he,  and  have,  may  be  conjugated, 
by  the  help  of  other  auxiliaries,  through  all  the  moods  and  tenses. 

Do.  The  different  tenses  of  do,  in  the  several  moods,  are  thus 
formed :  Indicative  mood,  pres.  tense,  first  pers.  sing.  I  do ;  im- 
perfect tense,  I  did  ;  perf.  I  have  done;  pluperfect,  I  had  done; 
first  future,  I  shall  or  will  do ;  sec.  fut.  I  shall  have  done.  Sub- 
junctive mood,  pres.  tense,  If  I  do ;  imperf.  if  I  did ;  and  so  on. 
Imperative  mood,  do  thou.  Potential,  pres.  I  may,  can,  or  mus 
do,  &c.     Infinitive,  present,  to  do;  perf.  to  have  done.     Pai** 


AUXILIAIY   VERBS.  155 

Hays.  Hate  is  in  great  demancL  No  verb  can  be  conju- 
gated through  all  the  moods  and  tenses  without  it.  Have,  when 
used  as  a  principal  verb,  is  doubled  in  some  of  the  past  tenses, 
and  becomes  an  auxiliary  to  itself;  thus,  Indie,  mood,  pros,  tense, 
first  pcrs.  sing,  I  have ;  imperf.  tense,  I  had  ;  perf.  I  have  had  ; 
pluperf.  I  had  had;  first  fut.  I  shall  or  will  have;  sec.  fut.  I 
shall  have  had.  Subjunctive,  present,  if  I  have ;  imperf.  if  1 
had  ;  perf.  if  I  have  had  ;  pluperf.  if  I  had  had  ;  first  fut.  if  I 
shall  or  will  have ;  sec.  fut.  if  I  shall  have  had.  Imper.  mood, 
have  thou.  Potential,  present,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  ;  imperf. 
I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  ;  perf.  I  may,  can,  or  must 
have  had ;  pluperf.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  had. 
Infinitive,  present,  to  have  ;  perf.  to  have  had.  Participles,  pres. 
having ;  perf.  had  ;  compound,  having  had. 

Be.  In  the  ndxt  place  I  will  present  to  you  the  conjugation  of 
the  irregular, neuter  verb.  Be,  which  is  an  auxiliary  whenever  it 
is  placed  before  the  perfect  participle  of  another  verb,  but  in 
every  other  situation,  it  is  a  principal  verb. 

To  Be. — Indicative  Mood. 
Pres.      (  Sinf.  I  am,  thou  art,  he,  she,  or  it  \». 
Tense.  (  Plur.  We  are,  ye  or  you  are,  they  are. 
Imperf.  (  Sing.  I  waa,  thou  wast,  he  was. 
Tense.  \  Plur.  We  were,  ye  or  you  were,  they  were. 
I'erf.      (  Sing.  I  have  been,  thou  hast  been,  he  hath  or  has  been. 
Tei\8e.  \  Plur.  We  have  been,  ye  or  you  have  been,  they  have  been. 
Plup.     (  Sing.  I  had  been,  thou  hadst  been,  he  had  been. 
Tense.  \  Plur.  We  had  been,  ye  or  you  had  been,  they  had  been. 
First      <  Sing^  I  shall  or  will  be,  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  he  shall  or  will  be. 
Fut.  T.  I  Plur.  We  shall  or  will  be,  you  shall  or  will  be,  they  shall  or  will  bo 
Second  (  Sing.  I  shall  have  been,  thou  wilt  have  been,  he  will  have  been. 
Fut.  T.  I  Plur.  We  shall  have  been,  you  will  have  been,  they  will  have  been. 

SuaniNCTivB  Mood. 

Pres.      C  Sing.  If  I  be,  if  thou  be,  if  he  be. 

Tf>n»e.  I  Plur.  If  we  be,  if  ye  or  you  be,  if  they  be. 

Imperf.  (  Sing.  If  I  were,  if  thou  wert,  if  ho  were. 

Tense.   \  Plur.  If  we  were,  if  ye  or  yoii  were,  if  they  werw. 

The  neuter  verb  to  he,  and  all  passive  verbs,  have  two  forms 
in  the  imperfect  tense  of  this  mood,  as  well  as  in  the  present ; 
therefore,  the  following  rule  may  serve  to  direct  you  in  the  proper 
use  of  each  form.  When  the  sentence  implies  dOubt,  supposi- 
tion, &c.  and  the  neuter  verb  be,  or  the  passive  verb,  is  used  with 
a  reference  to  present  or  futui»  time,  and  is  either  followed  or 
|)receded  by  another  verb  in  the  imperfect  of  the  potential  mood, 
the  conjunctive  form  of  the  imperfect  tense  must  be  employed ; 
JUS,  "  ijr  he  were  here,  we  should  rejoice  together ; "  "  She  mighi 


160  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

go,  leere  she  so  disposed."  But  when  there  is  no  reference  to 
present  or  future  time,  and  the  verb  is  neither  followed  nor  pre- 
ceded by  another  in  the  potential  imperfect,  the  indicative  form  of 
the  imperfect  tense^  must  be  used  ;  as,  "  If  he  was  ill,  he  did  not 
make  it  known  ;  *'  "  Whether  ho  loas  absent  or  present,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  no  consequence."  The  general  rule  for  using  the  con- 
junctive form  of  the  verb,  is  presented  on  page  145.  See,  also, 
page  135. 

The  j>erfect,  pluperfect,  and  first  future  tenses  of  the  subjunctire  mood, 
are  conjugated  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indica- 
tive.    The  second  future  is  conjugated  thus : 

Second  (  Sing.  If  I  shall  have  been,  if  thou  shalt  have  been,  if  he  shall,  &c. 
FuL  T.  (  Plur.  If  we  shall  have  lieen,  if  you  shall  have  been,  if  they,  &c. 

Imperative  Mood. 

Pres.      <  Sing.  Be,  or  be  thou,  or  do  thou  be. 

Tense.  {  Plur.  Be,  or  be  ye  or  you,  or  do  ye  or  you  be. 

PoTEIfTIAL    MoOD. 

( Sing.  I  noLf,  can,  or  must  be,  thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  be,  he 
Pres.     J  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Tense. M  Plur.  We  may,  can.  or  must  be,  ye  or  you  may,  can,  or  must  be, 

V,  they  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Imperf.  (  Sing.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be,  thou  mightst,  &c. 
Tense.  \  Plur.  We  might,  could,  would,  or  sliould  be,  you  might,  &c. 
Perf.       (  Sing.  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been,  thou  ranyst,  canst,  fcc. 
Tense.   \  Plur,  We  may,  can,  or  must  have  been,  you  may,  can,  or  mnsX.  8tM 
Pluper.  <  Sing.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been,  tliou,  &c. 
Tense.  \  Plur.  We  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been,  you,  &c. 

Infinitive  Mood. 

Pres.  Tense.     To  be.         Perf.  Tense.     To  have  been. 

Participles. 

Pres.  Being.     Perf.  Been.     Compound,  Having  been. 

This  verb  to  be,  though  very  irregular  in  its  conjugation,  is  by 
far  the  most  important  verb  in  our  language,  for  it  is  more  fre- 
quently used  than  any  other ;  many  rules  of  syntax  depend  on 
constructions  associated  with  it,  and,  without  its  aid,  no  passive 
verb  can  be  conjugated.  You  ought,  therefore,  to  make  yourself 
perfectly  familiar  with  all  its  changes,  before  you  proceed  any 
farther. 

II.  PASSIVE  VERBS. 

The  cotes  lof  noiins  are  a  fruitful  theme  for  investigation  and 
discussion.  In  the  progress  of  these  lectures,  this  subject  has 
frequently  engaged  our  attention ;  and,  now,  in  introducing  to 
your  notice  the  passive  verb,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  found  both  inte- 
resting and  profitable  to  present  one  more  view  of  the  nominativo 
case. 


PASSIVB    \rBRB8.  •     157 

Every  sentence,  you  recollect,  must  have  one  finite  verb,  or 
more  than  one,  and  one  notnmaiivey  either  expressed  or  implied, 
for,  without  thoni,  no  sentence  can  exist.    ^^ 

The  nominative  is  the  actor  or  subject  ^^^rning  which  the 
verb  makes  an  atlirmation.  There  are  three  kinds  of  nomina- 
tives, active,  passivcy  and  neuter. 

The  nominative  to  an  active  verb,  is  active^  because  it  produces 
an  action,  and  the  nominative  to  a  passive  verb,  is  passive,  be- 
cause it  receives  or  endures  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  ;  for, 

A  Passive  Verb  denotes  action  received  or  en^ 
durcd  by  the  person  or  thing  which  is  the  nomina- 
tive ;  as,  "The  hoy  is  beaten  by  his  father." 

You  perceive,  that  the  nominative  boy,  in  this  example,  is  not 
represented  as  the  actor,  but  as  the  object  of  the  action  expressed 
by  the  verb  is  beaten  ;  that  is,  the  boy  receives  or  endures  the 
action  performed  by  his  fath^ ;  therefore  boy  is  a  passive  nom- 
inative. And  you  observe,  too,  that  the  verb  is  beaten,  denotes 
the  action  received  or  endured  by  the  nominative  j  therefore  is 
beaten  is  a  passive  verb. 

If  I  say,  John  kicked  the  horse,  John  is  an  active  nominative, 
because  he  performed  or  produced  the  action ;  but  if  I  say,  Johq 
was  kicked  by  the  horse,  John  is  a  passive  nominative,  because 
he  received  or  endured  the  action. 

The  nominative  to  a  neuter  verb,  is  neuter,  because  it  does  not 

Jroduce  an  action  nor  receive  one ;  as,  John  sits  in  the  chair, 
ohn  is  here  connected  with  the  neuter  verb  sits,  which  expresses 
simply  the  state  of  being  of  its  nominative,  therefore  John  is  a 
neuter  nominative. 

I  will  now  illustrate  the  active,  passive,  and  neuter  nominatives 
by  a  few  examples. 

I.  Of  Active  Nominatives;  as,  "The  boy  beats  the  dog; 
The  lady  sings;  The'ball  rolls;  The  man  walks." 

II.  Of  Pas-sive  Nominatives  ;  as,  "  The  boy  is  beaten ;  The 
lady  is  loved  ;  The  ball  is  rolled  ;  The  man  was  killed." 

III.  Of  Neuter  Nominatives  ;  as,  "  The  boy  remains  idle ; 
The  lady  is  beautiful ;  The  ball  lies  on  the  ground  ;  The  man 
lives  in  town." 

You  may  now  proceed  to  the  conjugation  of  passive  verbs. 

Passive  Verbs  are  called  rt^ular  when  they  end 
in  ed  ;  as,  was  loved  ;  was  conquered. 

All  Passive  Verbs  are  formed  by  adding  the  oer- 

14 


158    •  ETYWOTXKSY  AND  SYNTAX. 

feci  participle  of  an  active-transitive  verb,  to  the 
neuter  verb  to  be. 

If  you  place  a^|Ci:;ct  participle  of  an  active-transitive  verb 
after  this  neuter  ^^ubcy  in  any  mood  or  tense,  you  will  have  a 
passive  verb  in  the  same  mood  and  tense  that  the  verb  be  would 
be  i|i  if  the  participle  were  not  used  ;  as,  I  am  slighted;  I  was 
slighted;  He  will  be  slighted;  If  I  be  slighted;  I  may,  can,  or 
must  be  slighted,  ^c.  Hence  you  perceive,  that  when  you  shall 
have  learned  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  ic,  you  will  be  able  to 
conjugate  any  passive  verb  in  the  English  language. 

The  regular  passive  verb  to  he  loved,  which  is  formed  by  add- 
ing the  perfect  participle  loved  to  the  neuter  verb  to  i«,  is  conju- 
gated in  the  following  manner : 

To  Be  Loved. — Indicative  Mood. 

Pre*.      (  Sing.  I  am  l«»%'ed,  thou  art  loved,  he  is  loved. 
Tense.  \  Plnr.  We  are  lovetl,  ye  or  you  are  loved,  they  are  loved. 
Imperf.  (  Sing.  I  waa  loved,  thou  waat  loved,  he  was  loved. 
Tense.   \  Plur.  We  were  loved,  ye  or  you  were  loved,  they  were  love#. 
Perfect  (  Sing.  I  have  been  loved,  thou  hast  been  loved,  he  has  been  loved. 
Tense.   \  Plur.  We  have  been  loved,  you  have  been  loved,  tliey  have,  &c. 
Pluper.  (  Sing.  I  had  been  loved,  thou  hadst  been  loved,  he  had  been,  &c. 
Tqnse.   \  Plur.  We  had  been  loved,  you  had  been  loved,  they  had  been,  Sue. 
Yvn\       (  Sing.  I  shall  or  will  Iw  loved,  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved,  he,  &c. 
F't  ire.  I  Plur.  We  shall  or  will  be  loved,  you  shall  or  will  be  loved,  Uiey,  &c. 
Second  <  Sing.  I  shall  have  been  loved,  thou  wilt  have  been  »oved,  he,  &c. 
Future.  \  Plur.  We  shall  have  been  loved,  you  will  have  been  loved,  &c. 

SuBJiTNCTivE  Mood. 

Pres.      (  Sing.  If  I  be  loved,  if  thou  be  loved,  if  he  be  loved. 
Tense.  \  Plur.  If  we  be  loved,  if  ye  or  you  be  loved,  if  they  be  loved. 
Imperf.  <  Sing.  If  I  were  loved,  if  thou  wert  loved,  if  he  were  loved. 
Tense.  \  Plur.  If  we  were  loved,  if  you  were  loved,  if  they  were  loved. 
This  mood  has  six  tenses : — See  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  be. 

Imperative  Mood. 

Pres.      <  Sing.  Be  thou  loved,  or  do  thou  be  lov<?d. 
Tenae.   (  Plur,  Be  ye  or  you  loved,  or  do  ye  be  loved. 

Potential  Mood. 
Pres.  (  Sing.  I  may,  can,  or  must  be  loved,  thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must,  &c 
Tense.  \  Plur.  We  may.  can,  or  nuist  be  loved,  you  may,  can,  or  must,  &c 
Ira^rf.  (  Sing.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be  loved,  thou  mightst,  &c 
Tense.  (  Plur.  We  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be  loved,  ye  or  you,  &c 
Perfect  (  Sing.  I  may,  can,  or  vOTtkt  have  been  loved,  thou  mayst,  canst,  &c. 
Tense.   (  Plur.  We  may,  can,  or  must  have  been  loved,  you  may,  can,  &c. 

{Sing.   I  might,  could,  would,  or  should   have  been  loved,  thou 
mightst,  couldst,  wnuldst,  or  shouldst  have  been  loved,  &c 
Plur.  We  might,  could,  would,  or  should   have  been  loved,  yoo 
might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  loved,  they,  &ek 


DBPSCTIVS    VERBS.  IM 

Infinitivb  Mood. 
Pre*.  Tense.     To  be  luved.         I'erf.  Teuse.     To  have  been  loved. 

PaRTICII'LES. 
Present,  Being  lovftl.         Tei  feet  or  Tawive,  Loved. 
Cuni[»ouiid,  Having  been  loved. 
Note.     This  conjugation  of  iJie  passive  verb  to  be  loved,  is  called  the 
ftutive  voice  of  the  regular  active-transitive  verb  to  love. 

Now  conjugate  the  following  passive  verbs;  that  is,  speak 
them  in  the  first  pers.  sing,  and  plur.  of  each  tense,  through  all 
the  nrjoods,  and  speak  the  participles  ;  "  to  be  loved,  to  be  rejected, 
to  be  slighted,  to  be  conquered,  to  be  seen,  to  bo  beaten,  to  be 
sought,  to  be  taken." 

NoTK  1.  When  the  perfect  participle  of  an  intratutUive  verb  is  joined  to 
the  neuter  verb  to  be,  the  combination  is  not  a  passive  verb,  but  a  neuter  verb 
in  a  pojftive  form ;  as,  '•  He  is  ^one  ;  The  birds  areflovm  ;  The  boy  it  grown ; 
My  friend  it  arrived^  The  following  mode  of  construction,  is,  in  geueml,  lo 
be  preferretl ;  "He  has  gone ;  The  birds  have  flown  ;  The  boy  hat  grown  ; 
My  friend  hat  arrived." 

2.  Active  and  neuter  verbs  may  be  conjugate<l  by  adding  their  present 
participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  to  be,  through  all  ita  variations;  as,  instead  of, 
I  teach,  thou  teachest,  he  teaches,  &c.,  we  may  say,  1  am  teaching,  thou  art 
teaching,  he  is  teaching,  dtc. ;  and,  instead  of,  I  taught,  &c. ;  I  was  teaching, 
&c.  This  mode  of  conjugation  expresses  the  continuation  of  an  actit\n  or 
state  of  being ;  and  has,  on  some  occasions,  a  peculiar  propriety,  and  con- 
tributes to  Uie  harmony  and  precision  of  language.  When  the  present  pat^ 
ticiple  of  an  active  verb  is  joined  with  the  neuter  verb  to  be,  the  two  words 
united,  are,  by  some  grammarians,  denominated  an  active  verb,  cither  tran- 
ndve  or  intransitive,  as  the  case  may  be ;  as,  "  I  am  writing  a  letter ;  He  is 
walking :"  and  when  the  present  participle  of  a  neuter  verb  is  thus  employed, 
they  term  the  combination  a  neuter  verb  ;  as,  "  I  am  sitting ;  He  is  standing." 
Others,  in  constructions  like  these,  parse  each  word  separately.  Eitlier  mode 
may  be  adopted. 

III.  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 
Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only 
in  some  of  the  moods  and  tenses. 

The  principal  of  them  are  these. 

Ptrfeei  or  Pattive  Participle 
it  wanting. 


Pret.  Tente 

Imperf.  Tente. 

May, 

might. 

Can, 

could. 

Will, 

wotdd. 

RhaH, 

should. 

Must, 

must 

Ought, 

ought. 

quoth. 

NoTlt. 

JlfKj<and 

onrkt  are  not  varied. 
I*  r.   „i r.ii 1 

Ought  and  qnotk  are  never  osed 
as  auxiliaries.  Ought  is  always  fiillowed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  moixl, 
which  verb  determines  its  tense.  Ought  is  in  the  present  tense  when  the  in- 
(initive  following  it  is  in  the  present ;  as,  "  tie  ought  to  do  it ;"  and  ought  m 
ui  the  imprrfeet  tense  when  tbtlowed  by  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive;  m^ 
*  He  0ught  to  have  don*  it.** 


160  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

Before  you  proceed  to  the  analysis  of  the  following  examples, 
y«rti  may  read  over  the  last  tJiree  lectures  carefully  and  attenu 
ivoly ;  and  as  sooii  as  you  become  accjuainted  with  all  that  has 
hecn  presented,  you  will  understand  nearly  all  the  principles  and 
regular  constructions  of  our  language.  In  parsing  a  verb,  or 
any  other  part  of  speech,  be  careful  to  pursue  the  systematic 
order,  and  to  conjugate  every  verb  until  you  become  familiar 
with  all  the  mocxls  and  tenses. 

"  He  ahoxdd  have  been  punished  before  he  committed  that  atro- 
cious deed." 

Should  have  been  punished  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  signifies  to 
do— passive,  it  denotes  action  received  or  endured  by  the  nom. — 
it  is  formed  by  adding  the  perfect  part,  punished  to  the  neuter 
verb  to  be — regular,  the  perf.  part,  ends  in  ed — potential  mood, 
it  implies  obligation,  dec. — pluperfect  tense,  it  denotes  a  past  act 
which  was  prior  to  the  other  past  time  specified  by  "  committed'* — 
third  pcrs.  sing.  num.  because  the  nom.  "  he"  is  with  which  it 
agrees :  Rule  4.  The  verb  must  agree,  &c. — Conjugated,  Indie, 
mood,  pres.  tense,  he  is  punished  ;  imperf.  tense,  he  was  pun- 
ished ;  perf.  tense,  he  has  been  punished  ;  and  so  on.  Conjugate 
it  through  all  the  moods  and  tehses,  and  speak  the  participles. 

EXERCISES  LN  PARSING. 
Columbus  discovered  America.  America  was  discovered  by 
Columbus.  The  preceptor  is  writing  a  letter.  The  letter  is  writ- 
ten by  the  preceptor.  The  work  can  be  done.  The  house  would 
have  been  built  ere  this,  had  he  fulfilled  his  promise.  If  I  be 
l>eaten  by  that  man,  he  will  be  punished.  Young  man,  if  you 
^v  ish  to  be  respected,  5^  must  be  more  assiduous.  Being  ridi- 
culed and  despised,  he  lefl  the  institution.  He  is  reading  Homer. 
They  are  talking.  He  may  be  respected,  if  he  become  more 
mgenuous.  My  worthy  friend  ought  to  be  honored  for  his  bene- 
volent deeds.      This  ought  ye  to  have  done. 

ADDITIONAL  EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
All  the  most  important  principles  of  the  science,  together  with 
many  of  the  rules,  have  now  been  presented  and  illustrated. 
But  before  you  proceed  to  analyze  the  following  exercises,  you 
may  turn  over  a  few  pages,  and  you  will  find  ail  the  rules  pre- 
sonted  in  a  body.  Please  to  examine  them  critically,  and  parse 
the  examples  under  each  rule  and  note.  The  examples,  you  will 
notice,  are  given  to  illustrate  the  respective  rules  and  notes  under 
which  they  are  placed  ;  hence,  by  paying  particular  attention  to 
them,  you  will  be  enabled  fully  and  clearly  to  comprehend  the 
meaning  and  aonlicalion  of  all  the  rules  and  notes. 


VERBS. PARSING.  161 

As  soon  as  you  become  familiarly  acquainted  with  all  the  deji- 
u.:iofiSy  so  that  you  can  apply  them  with  facility,  you  may  omit 
them  in  parsing ;  but  you  must  always  apply  the  rules  of  Syntax. 
When  you  parse  without  applying  the  definitions,  you  may  pro- 
ceed in  the  following  manner : 

"  Mercy    is    the   true   badge  of  nobility.^' 

Mercy  is  a  noun  common,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person, 
^uigular  number,  and  in- the  nominative  case  to  "is:"  Rule  3. 
The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb. 

Is  is  an  irregular  neuter  verb,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
third  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  "  mercy,"  according 
to  Rule  4.   The  verb  must  agree,  &c. 

The  is  a  definite  article,  belonging  to  "  badge,"  in  the  sin- 
gular number  :  Rule  2.   The  definite  article  the,  dec. 

True  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  the- 
noun  "  badge  :"  Rule  18.  Adjectives  belongy  &c. 

Badge  is  a  noun  com.  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  after  "is,"  and  put  by  appo- 
sition with  "  mercy,"  according  to  Rule  21.  The  verb  to  be  may 
h€^^  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it. 

Of  is  a  preposition,  connecting  "  badge"  and  "  nobility,"  and 
showing  the  relation  between  them. 

Nobility  is  a  noun  of  multitude,  mas.  and  fern,  gender,  third 
person,  sing,  and  in  the  obj.  case,  and  governed  by  "of:"  Rule 
81.  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 

Learn  to  unlearn  what  you  have  learned  amiss. 

What  I  forfeit  for  myself  is  a  trifle ;  that  my  indiscretions 
should  reach  my  posterity,  wounds  me  to  the  heart. 

Lady  Jane  Gray  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  wild  ambition  of  the 
duke  of  Northumberland. 

King  Missipsi  charged  his  sons  to  consider  the  senate  and  peo- 
plo  of  Rome  as  proprietors  of  the  kingdom  of  Numidia. 

Hazael  smote  the  children  of  Israel  in  all  their  coasts ;  and 
from  what  is  loft  on  record  of  his  actions,  he  plainly  appears  to 
have  proved,  what  the  prophet  foresaw  him  to  be,  a  man  of  vio- 
r  nee,  cruelty,  and  blood.  M, 

Heaven  hides  from  brutes  what  men,  from  men  what  spirits 

MOW. 

I  le  that  formed  the  ear,  can  he  not  hear  ? 

He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear. 

Note  1.  Leam,  in  the  first  of  the  precr»din;j  f>XRmplos.  is  a  transitive  rcrb, 
becaitAe  tho  actiou  pufwetf  over  from  th«  uom.  you  understood,  to  the  rftt  of 
tk«  tenlenct  for  its  objuct  t  SLvut  Hi.     In  the  ooxt  example,  tUat  my  indiur^ 

14* 


162  BTTMOLOOT   AND   SYTfTAX. 

tioiu  ihmid  reach  my  posterity,  ii  a  part  of  a  sentence  pat  as  the  nominati 
to  the  verb  voundt,  according  to  the  same  Rule. 

2.  The  noun  tacrifire,  in  liie  third  example,  is  nom.  after  the  active-intn 
titive  \crh  fell :  Rule  22.  The  noun  proprirfort,  in  the  next  sentence,  is 
the  objective  case,  and  put  by  apposition  with  $enaU  and  people  :  Rolk 
or  governed  by  consider,  understood,  according  to  Rulk  35. 

3.  In  the  fifth  example,  tpkal,  following  proved,  is  a  compound  relati^ 
Thing,  the  antecedent  part,  is  in  the  nom.  case  after  to  be,  understood,  a; 
put  by  apposition  with  he,  according  to  Bdlx  21,  and  Notc.  Which,  t 
relatiTe  part,  is  m  the  obj.  case  after  U>  be  expressed,  and  put  by  appositi 
with  Am,  according  to  the  same  Rolk.  Mam  is  in  the  obj.  case,  put  by  a 
podtion  with  which :  Rolb  7.  The  Utter  part  of*  the  sentence  may  be  ii 
rally  rendered  thus :  He  plainly  appears  to  nave  proved  to  be  that  base  ehc 
acter  which  the  prophet  foresaw  him  to  be,  viz.  a  man  of  violence,  cruell 
and  blood.  The  antecedent  part  of  the  first  what,  in  the  next  sentence, 
governed  by  hide*  ;  and  which,  the  relative  part,  is  governed  by  know  nnd« 
stood.  The  antecedent  part  of  the  second  what,  is  governed  by  hides  undf 
•tood,  and  the  reUtive  part  is  governed  by  know  expressed. 

4.  The  first  he,  in  the  wventh  example,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  noi 
to  can  hear  nodentood ;  but  Mr.  N.  R.  Smith,  a  distinguished  and  acu 
erammarian,  soggests  die  propriety  of  rendering  the  sentence  thus ;  "  \ 
that  formed  the  e^,  formed  it  to  hear;  can  he  not  hear?"  The  first  he, 
the  last  example,  is  redundant ;  yet  the  construction  is  sometimes  adraissibl 
for  the  expression  u  more  forcible  tlian  it  would  be  to  say,  "  Let  him  he 
who  hath  ean  to  bear ;"  and  if  we  adopt  the  insenioos  method  of  Mr.  ^taM^ 
tiie  sentenoa  ia  grammatical,  and  may  be  rendered  thna ;  "  He  tha^a 
ears,  hath  ears  to  hear ;  let  him  hear. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Idioms^  anomaUeSf  and  intricacies, 

1.  "The  wall  is  three  feet  high." 

2.  "  His  son  is  eight  years  old." 
8.  "  My  knife  is  worth  a  shilling." 

4.  "  She  is  worth  him  and  all  his  connexions,** 

5.  "  He  has  been  there  three  times" 

6.  "  The  hat  cost  ten  dollars." 

7.  "  The  load  weighs  a  ttin." 

8.  "  The  spar  measures  ninety  feet.^ 

Rkxarks. — Anomaly  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  a,  without,  and  omafe 
similar ;  that  is,  without  similarity.  Some  give  its  derivation  thus ;  anomal 
firora  the  Latin,  ab,  from,  or  out  of,  and  norma,  a  nile,  or  law,  means  an  on 
late;  a  mode  of  expression  that  departs  from  the  rules,  laws,  or  gencn 
oaages  of  the  language ;  a  construction  in  language  peciiliar  to  itself.  Thu 
it  is  a  general  rule  of  the  laniruage,  that  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  con 
pared  by  adding  r,  or  er,  and  «/,  or  est,  to  the  positive  degree  ;  but  good,  be 
ter,  best ;  bad,  worse,  worst,  are  not  compared  according  to  the  general  rul< 
They  are,  therefore,  anomalies.  The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  general! 
formed  by  adding  s  to  the  singular :  man,  men ;  woman,  women ;  child,  chi 
dren ;  penny,  pence,  are  anomalies.  The  use  of  neics,  means,  alms,  an 
amends,  in  the  singular,  constitutes  anomalies.  Anomalous  constructions  ai 
correct  according  to  custom ;  but,  as  ihey  are  departures  from  general  rule 
by  them  they  cannot  be  analyzed. 

An  idiom,  Ijia^n  idioma,  a  construction  peculiar  to  a  language,  may  be  a 


INOMALIES. PARSmO.  168 

annmalj,  or  it  may  not.  An  idiomatical  expreasion  which  is  not  an  anomalj, 
rati  lie  analyztnl. 

/Vr/  and  ytars.  in  the  l8t,and2(l  examples,  are  nnt  in  the  nominative  aAer 

icconliii"  to  Rule  21,  because  they  are  not  in  api>o8itinn  with  the  re8|)eo- 

iivf  nouns  that  prccedo  the  verb;  but  the  constructions  are  anoujulous ;  and, 

therefore,  no  rulf  can  be  applied  to  analyze  them.     The  same  ideas,  how 

ever,  can  he  c(»nvt«>ed  by  a  k'"itiniate  constniction  which  can  l)e  analyzi?d; 

thus,  "Theheighliiixhe  wall  Ib  three/iff/;"  "  TYxeage  of  my  son  is  eight  y^ar*.'* 

An  anomaly,  when  ascertained  to  be  such,  is  eaitily  disiiosed  of;  but  some 

times  it  is  very  difficult  to  decide  whether  a  conntniction  is  anomalous  or 

not.     The  3d,  4th,  and  5th  examples,  are  gencndly  considennl  anomalies; 

but  if  we  supply,  as  we  are,  perliaps.  warnujted  in  doing,  the  associated 

words  which  modem  refinement  has  drojipetl,  they  will  cease  to  Ihj  anonuv* 

lies ;  thus,  "  My  knife  is  of  the  worth  o/ a  shilling ;"  " — of  the  worth  o/him," 

''■  Tie  has  been  there /or  three  times;"  as  we  say,  "  I  was  unwell  fo^ 

V  8,  after  I  arrived;"  or,  "  I  was  unwell  three  days."     Thus  it  ap- 

.  it  by  tracing  back, /or  a  few  centuries,  what  the  merely  mo<lem 

,li»b  scholar  supposes  to  be  an  anomaly,  an  ellipsis  will  frequently  be  di»- 

-•re<l.  which,  when  supplied,  destroys  the  anomaly. 

*  '   •~.  and  p<»culinr  and  varying  constructions  in  a  living  lan- 

I'liilologist.s  can  never  be  agreed  ;  because  many  usages 
'tied  ami  tluctuating,  and  will,  consequently,  be  disposed 
of  according  to  the  caprice  of  the  grammarian.     By  some,  a  sentence  may  be 
treale<l  ^  an  anomaly  ;  by  othei;?  who  contend  for,  and  supply,  an  elliiMiis, 
the  s  •'■lice  may  be  analyzed  according  to  the  ellipsis  supplied  ;  wliilst 

otl;'  ly  both  the  elliptical  and  annmalouscharacter  of  the  sentence, 

con-  .•  by  which  to  analyze  it,  which  rule  has  for  its  foundation  the 

princiole  contained  in  that  sentence  only.  This  last  mode  of  procedure,  in- 
asmuch as  it  requires  us  to  make  a  rule  for  every  peculiar  construction  in  «he 
language,  appears  to  me  to  be  the  most  exce]>tionable  of  the  three.  It 
ap{)eani  to  be  multiplying  ndes  iKjj^ond  the  bounds  of  utility. 

The  verbs,  eo$t,  ireiehg,  and  measures,  in  the  Gth,  7ih,  and  8th  examples,  may 
be  considered  as  transitive.     See  remarks  on  resemble,  havtf  own,  &c.,  page  56. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "  And  God  said,  *  Let  there  be  light,*  and  there  was  light." 
"Let  us  make  man."  "Let  us  bow  before  the  Lord."  "Let 
high-born  seraphs  tune  the  lyre." 

2.  "  Be  it  enacted."  "  Be  it  remembered."  "  Blessed  he  he 
that  blesseth  thee  ;  and  cursed  be  he  that  curseth  thee."  "  My 
soul,  turn  from  them  u — turn  we  to  survey,"  &;c. 

3.  "  Methinks  I  see  the  portals  of  eternity  wide  open  to  receive 
him."  "  Mcthought  I  was  incarcerated  beneath  the  mighty  deep." 
"  I  was  there  just  thirty  years  ago." 

4.  "Their  laws  and  their  manners,  generally  speakings  were 
extremely  rude."  "  Considering  their  means,  they  have  efTected 
much." 

5.  ".^h  me  !  nor  hope  nor  life  remains.** 

"  Me  misoral)!©  •  which  way  shall  I  fly  t** 

6.  "  O  knppiness  !  nur  l>eing's  end  and  aim! 

Ci'Kxl,  pleasure,  ease,  content !  wliate'er  thj  name. 
That  something  still  which  prompts  th'  eternal  sigh 
For  which  we  hear  to  Ihre.  or  dare  to  die." — 


164  ETYMOLOGY   AND   SYNTAX. 

The  Terb  Ut,  in  the  idiomatic  examples  under  number  1,  has  no  nomi 
live  specified,  and  is  left  applicable  to  a  noniinutive  of  the  fintt,  w^ond, 
third  person,  and  c*f     ■'    -  '  Every  aclion  necessarilv  <^ 

a^t  or  moving  f ,,  it  follows,  iliat  the  verb,  in  ^ 

tMMia,  has  a  nomiiia:  ,;  but  as  that  nominative  is  uu.  j..,  ..^w* 

foinUd  out,  tlie  constnictiuiis  may  be  considered  anomalous. 

Instead  of  saving,  "  Let  it  [to]  be  enacted ;"  or,  "  It  ig  or  uhall  be  enactec: 
**  Let  him  [to]  be  blessed  ;"  or,  "  He  $haU  be  blessed  ;"  "  Let  us  turn  to  s 
Tcy,"  &c.;  tlie  verbs,  be  enacted,  be  blessed,  tvm,  &c.  according  to  an  idi( 

of  <»ur  language,  or  •' ''s  license,  are  used  in  the  imperative,  agreei 

^-ith  a  nominative  '  or  third  p«rM»i. 

^  The  phrases,  tnr'  methoMgkt,  are  anomalies,  in  which  tlie  obj( 

live  pronoun  me,  in  the  drst  person,  is  used  in  place  of  a  nominative,  a 
takes  a  verb  after  it  in  tiio  third  penion.  Him  v^-as  anciently  used  m  t 
Mine  maimer ;  aa,  **  Jkm  tJkut.  lu'ht."     There  was  a  period  wfa 

tbeae  oonatructioiui  ware  not  :>  :  our  language.     Fonnerly,  what  ^ 

call  the  objective  caaea  of  our  i-iv...,,.....^.  were  eniploye<l  in  the  8amo  t 

as  our  present  momunaiives  are.     Ago  is  a  coutractiou  oi  agone,  tlie  ] 
of  to  go.     Before  this  participle  was  contracted  to  an  adverb,  the  uok' 
preceding  it,  was  in  the  nominative  case  abaolute  ;  but  now  the  cuustructi 
amounts  to  an  anomaly.     The  expressions,  "  generally  speaking,"  and  "  c< 
sidering  their  means,    under  number  4,  are  iJIbmatical  and  anomalous,  t 
subjects  to  the  participles  not  being  sjiecifif^d. 

According  to  the  genius  <if  the  English  huiguage,  transitive  verbs  f-i  " 
positions  require  the  objective  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  after  them  \ 
requisition  is  all  that  is  meant  by  goveniment,  when  we  say.  that  \hv>. 
of  speech  govern  the  objective  case.  See  pages  52,  57,  and  94.  The  sai 
principle  applies  to  the  interjection.  "  Inteijections  require  the  objective  ct 
of  a  pronoim  of  the  first  person  after  them ;  but  the  nominative  of  a  noun 
pronoun  of  the  second  or  third  per8<m ;  as,  "  Ah  me !  Oh  thou  I  O  my  eon 
try!"  To  say,  then,  that  inteijections  require  particular  ca.ses  after  them, 
synonymous  with  saying,  that  they  govern  those  cases ;  and  this  office  of  t 
interjection  is  in  })erfect  accordance  with  that  which  it  performs  in  the  Lai 
ami  many  other  languages.  In  the  examples  under  number  5.  the  first  i 
is  in  the  objective  after  "  ah."  and  the  second  me,  after  ah  understood ;  tht 
*'  Ah  mi.'«erable  me  !*'  according  to  Note  2,  under  Ride  5. — Happiness,  und 
number  6,  is  nom.  independent ;  Rule  5,  or  in  the  nom.  after  O,  accordii 
to  this  Note.  The  principle  contained  in  tlie  note,  proves  that  every  noi 
of  the  second  person  is  in  the  nominative  case ;  for,  as  the  pronoun  of  t) 
second  person,  in  such  a  situation,  is  alwajrs  nominative,  which  is  shown  1 
its  form,  it  logically  follows  that  the  noun,  under  such  circumstances,  althouj 
it  has  no  form  to  show  its  case,  mnst  necessarily  be  in  tlie  same  case  as  tl 
pronoun.  "  G(kx1,  pleasure,  ease,  content,  thai,"  the  antecedent  part  < 
••  whatever,"  and  ichich,  the  relative  part,  are  nom.  after  art  understooc 
Rule  21,  and  name  is  nonr.  to  be  understood. 

The  second  line  may  be  rendered  thus ;  Whether  thou  art  good,  or  wheth( 
fljou  art  pleasure,  cfcr.  or  be  thy  name  that  [thing]  which  [ever  thing]  it  vat 
be;  putting  6«  in  the  imperative,  agreeing  with  nam€  in  the  third  perso 
Something  is  nominative  after  art  understood. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  "  All  were  well  hvi  the  stranger.^*     "  I  saw  nobody  but  th 

stranger"     "  All  had  returned  but  he."     "  None  but  the  hrat 

deserve  the  fair."     "  The  thing  they  can't  hit  purpose,  they  pos 

pone." .  "  This  life,  at  best,  is  ^  a  dream."     "  It  affords  but 


ANOMALIES. PARSING.  166 

scanty  measure  of  enjoyment."     "  If  he  hut  touch  the  hills,  they 
will  smoke."    "  Man  Wbut  a  reed,  floating  on  the  current  of  time." 

2.  "  Notwithstanding  his  poverty,  he  is  content." 

3.  "  Open  your  hand  wide."  "  Tiie  apples  boil  soft."  "The 
purest  clay  is  that  which  burns  white.**  "  Drmk  decp^  or  taste 
not  the  Pierian  spring." 

4.  "  What  though  the  swelling  surge  thou  see?"  dec.  "  What  if 
the  foot,  ordain'd  the  dust  to  tread  ?"  &c. 

Rkxarks. — According  to  the  principle  of  analyws  sflsomed  by  many  of 
onr  most  critical  philologists,  but  is  alwayt  a  disjunctive  conjunction ;  aiid 
agreeably  to  the  same  authorities,  to  construo  it,  in  any  casts,  as  a  preposition, 
would  lead  to  error.  See  false  Syntax  under  Rule  35.  They  maintain,  that 
its  legitimate  and  undeviating  office  is,  to  join  on  a  member  of  a  sentence 
which  expr*»ae$  opposition  of  meaning,  and  thereliy  forms  an  exception  to, 
or  takes  from  the  universality  of,  the  proposition  comiiined  in  the  preceding 
member  of  the  sentence.  That  it  sustains  its  true  character  as  a  conjunction 
in  all  the  examples  under  number  1,  will  be  shown  by  the  following  resolu- 
tion of  them. — "  All  were  well  but  the  atranger  \_tDa»  not  weU."'\  **  I  saw 
nobody  but  [/«fl«?]  the  stranger  "  "  None  deserve  the  fair  but  the  brave 
{^deMerve  the /air."']  "  They  postpone  the  thing  which  {_tkey  ought  to  do,  and 
do  not.]  hut  which  Ithing]  they  cannot  avoid  purposing  to  do."  "  This  life, 
at  best,  [i«  not  a  realitif,]  but  it  is  a  dream.  It  \_a fords  not  unbounded  fnti- 
rttfii]  biU  it  affords  a  scanty  measure  of  enjoyment."  "  If  he  touch  the  hills, 
but  exert  no  greater  power  upon  them,  they  will  smoke  ;" — "  If  ha  exert  no 
greater  power  upon  the  hills,  but  \be-<mt  this  fact"]  if  he  touch  them,  they  will 
«moke."  •*  Man  is  not  a  stable  being,  &«/  he  is  a  reed,  floating  on  the  current 
of  time."  This  method  of  analyzing  sentences,  however,  if  I  mistake  not, 
is  too  much  on  the  plan  of  our  pretended  philosophical  writers,  who,  in  their 
rage  for  ancient  constructions  and  combinations,  often  overlook  the  modem 
UWKiated  meaning  and  application  of  this  word.  It  appears  to  me  to  be 
more  consistent  with  the  modem  use  of  the  word,  to  consider  it  an  adverb  in 
eoDstmctions  like  the  following :  "  If  he  but  (only,  merely)  touch  the  hilla 
they  will  smoke." 

Except  and  near,  in  exiimplefl  like  the  following,  are  generally  construed 
as  prepositions:  "All  went  except  him;"  "She  stands  near  them."  But 
many  contend,  that  when  we  employ  but  instead  of  except,  in  such  construc- 
tions, a  nominative  should  follow  :  "  All  went  but  he  {did  not  go.""]  On  this 
point  and  many  others,  custom  is  variable  ;  but  the  period  will  doubUess  ar- 
rive, when  but,  worth,  and  like,  will  be  considered  prepositi«)ns,  and,  in  con- 
Btnirtions  like  the  foregoing,  invariably  be  followetl  by  an  objective  case. 
Thin  will  not  bo  the  case,  however,  until  the  practice  of  supplying  an  ellipiiis 
after  those  wonls  is  entirely  drop|>ed. 

Poverty,  under  numl>er  2,  is  governed  by  the  preposition  notwithstanding, 
Rtile  31.  The  adjectives  wide,  soft,  white,  and  deep,  under  number  3,  n«>t 
v  express  the  quality  of  nouns,  but  also  oualify  verbs:  Nolo  4,  under 
18. —  IVhat,  in  the  phrases  "  what  though"  and  "  what  if,"  is  an  inter- 
:  ^  itive  in  tlie  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  verb  matters  understooil, 
or  by  tome  other  verb  ;  thus,  "  What  matters  it — what  dost  thou  fear,  though 
thou  see  the  swelling  surse  T"  "  What  would  you  th'uik,  if  the  foot,  which 
is  ordained  to  tread  the  dust,  aspired  to  bo  the  Lead  7" 

In  the  following  examples,  the  j-ame  word  is  used  as  several 
pails  of  speech.     But  by  exercising  judgment  sufficient  to  com- 


160  ETYMOLOGT  JLND  SYNTAX. 

prehcnd  the  meaning,  and  by  supplying  what  is  understood, 
will  be  able  to  analyze  them  correctly. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
I  like  what  you  dislike. 

Every  creature  loves  its  like. 

Anger,  envy,  and  like  passions,  are  sinful. 

Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens  every  object  around  it. 

Thought  flies  swifter  than  light. 

He  thought  as  a  sage,  though  he  felt  as  a  man. 

Hail  often  proves  destructive  to  vegetation. 

I  was  happy  to  hail  him  as  my  friend. 

Hail !  beauteous  stranger  of  the  wood. 

The  more  I  examine  the  work,  the  better  I  like  it. 

Johnson  is  a  bett^  writer  than  Sterne. 

Calm  was  the  day,  and  the  scene  delightful. 

We  may  expect  a  calm  after  a  storm. 

To  prevent  passion  is  easier  than  to  calm  it. 

Damp  air  is  unwholesome. 

Guilt  often  casts  a  damp  over'our  sprightliest  hours. 

Soft  bodies  damp  the  sound  much  more  than  hard  ones. 

Much  money  has  been  expended. 

or  him  to  whom  much  is  given,  much  will  be  required. 

It  is  much  belter  to  give  than  to  receive. 

Still  water  runs  deep.         He  labored  to  still  the  tumult. 

Those  two  young  profligates  remain  still  in  the  wrong. 

They  wrong  themselves  as  well  as  their  friends. 

I  will  now  present  to  you  a  few  examples  in  poetry.  Par 
in  poetry,  as  it  brings  into  requisition  a  higher  degree  of  me 
exertion  than  parsing  in  prose,  will  be  found  a  more  deligl 
and  profitable  exercise.  In  this  kind  of  analysis,  in  orde 
come  at  the  meaning  of  the  author,  you  will  find  it  necessar 
transpose  his  language,  and  supply  what  is  understood ;  «nd 
you  will  have  the  literal  meaning  in  prose. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Apostrophe  to  Hope. — Campbell. 
Eternal  Hope  !  when  yonder  spheres  sublime 
Pealed  their  first  notes  to  sound  the  march  of  time, 
Thy  joyous  youth  began : — but  not  to  fade. — 
When  all  the  sister  planets  have  decayed ; 
When  wrapt  in  flames  the  realms  of  ether  glow, 
And  Heaven's  last  thunder  shakes  the  world  below ; 
Thou,  undismay'd,  shalt  o'er  the  ruins  smile. 
And  light  thy  torch  at  Nature's  funeral  pile! 


poetry  transposed. ^fabsiivo.  167 

Transposed. 
Eternal  Hope !  thy  joyous  youth  began  when  yonder  sublime 
[^  neres  pealed  their  first  notes  to  sound  the  march  of  time  :-^ 
but  it  began  not  to  fade. — Thou,  undismayed,  shalt  smile  over 
the  ruins,  when  all  the  sister  planets  shall  have  decayed ;  and 
ihou  shalt  light  thy  torch  at  Nature's  funeral  pile,  when  wrapt  in 
flames,  the  realms  of  ether  glow,  and  Heaven's  last  thunder 
shakes  the  world  below. 

Address  to  Adversity. — Gray. 
Daughter  of  heaven,  relentless  power, 
Thou  tamer  of  the  human  breast. 
Whose  iron  scourge,  and  tort'ring  hour, 
The  bad  affright,  afflict  the  best ! 
The  gen'rous  spark  extinct  revive ; 
Teach  me  to  love  and  to  forgive ; 
Exact  my  own  defects  to  scan  : 
What  others  are  to  feel ;  and  know  myself  a  man. 
Transposed. 
Daughter  of  heaven,  relentless  power,  thou  tamer  of  the  human 
breast,  whose  iron  scourg#  and  torturing  hour  affright  the  bad, 
and  afflict  the  best !  Revive  thou  in   me  the  generous,  extinct 
spark  ;  and  teach  thou  me  to  love  others,  and  to  forgive  them ; 
and  teach  thou  me  to  scan  my  own  defects  exactly,  or  critically : 
and  teach  thou  me  that  which  others  are  to  feel ;  and  make  thou 
me  to  know  myself  to  be  a  man. 

Address  to  the  Almighty .-^Pope. 
What  conscience  dictates  to  bedone. 

Or  warns  me  not  to  do, 
This  teach  me  more  than  hell  to  shun, 
That  more  than  heav'n  pursue. 
Transposed. 
O  Gofi,  teach  thou  me  to  pursue  that  (the  thing)  which  con- 
i''nce  dictates  to  be  done,  more  ardently  than  I  pursue  heaven  ; 
i  teach  thou  me  to  shun  this  (the  thing)  which  conscienpe  warns 
not  to  do,  more  cautiously  than  I  would  shun  hell 
^  Trials  of  Virtue. — Merrick. 

For  see,  ah  ?  see,  while  yet  her  ways 

With  doubtful  step  I  tread, 
A  hostile  world  its  terrors  raise. 

Its  snares  delusive  spread. 
O  how  shall  I,  with  heart  prepared. 

Those  terrors  learn  to  meet? 
How,  from  the  thousand  snares  to  guard 
My  unexperienced  feet  ? 


168  etymology  and  syntax. 

Transposed. 
For  sec  thou,  ah !  see  thou  a  hostile  w/)rM  to  raise  its  terro 
and  see  thou  a  hostile  world  to  spread  its  delusive  snares,  wh 
I  yet  tread  her  {virttie^s)  ways  with  doubtful  steps. 

O  how  shall  I  learn  to  meet  those  terrors  with  a  prepar 
heart  ?  How  shall  I  learn  to  guard  my  unexperienced  feet  fn 
the  thousand  snares  of  the  world  ? 

The  Morning  in  Summer. — Thompson. 
Short  is  the  doubtful  empire  of  the  night ; 
And  soon,  observant  of  approaching  day, 
The  meek-eyed  mom  appears,  mother  of  dews, 
At  first,  faint  gleaming  in  the  dappled  east. 
Till  far  o*er  ether  spreads  the  widening  glow, 
And  from  before  the  lustre  of  her  face 
White  break  the  clouds  away. 

Transposed. 
The  doubtful  empire  of  the  night  is  short ;  and  the  meek-ey 
mom,  (which  is  the)  mother  of  dews,  observant  of  approachii 
day,  soon  appears,  gleaming  faintly,  at  first,  in  the  dappled  ea 
till  the  widening  glow  spreads  far  over  ether,  and  the  whi 
clouds  break  away  from  before  the  lustre  of  her  face. 
Nature  Bountiful. — Akenside. 

Nature's  care,  to  all  her  children  just. 

With  richest  treasures,  and  an  ample  state, 
Endows  at  large  whatever  happy  man 
Will  deign  to  use  them. 

Transposed. 
Nature's  care,  which  is  just  to  all  her  children,  largely  e 
dows,  with  richest  treasures  and  an  ample  state,  that  happy  mi 
who  will  deign  to  use  them. 

NoTK.  What,  in  the  second  example,  is  a  comp.  rel.  The  antecedt 
part  is  gov.  by  teach  understood ;  and  the  relative  part  by  to  feel  express* 
To  shun  and  to  jnirsue,  in  Uie  third  example,  are  in  the  infinitive  mood,  g( 
by  i^rtn,  accord mg  to  a  Note  under  Rule  23.  Faint  m\d  from,  \n  the  .^ 
example,  are  adverbs.  An  atlverb,  in  poetry,  is  often  written  in  the  forn^ 
an  adjective.  Whatever,  in  the  last  sentence,  is  a  comi>ound  pronoun,  all 
equivalent  to  that  and  vho.  That  is  an  adj.  pron.  belonging  to  "  man ;"  w 
is  uom.  to  "  will  deign  ;*'  and  ever  is  excluded  from  the  sentence  in  sen 
See  page  113.  Parse  these  examples  as  they  are  transposed,  tuid  youw 
find  the  analysis  very  easy. 

ADDITIONAL  EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
Gold,  not  Genuine  Wealth. 
Where,  thy  true  treasure  ?     Gold  says,  "  not  in  me ;" 
And,  "not  in  me,"  the  Diamond.     Gold  is  poor. 


pobtsy  tbansposbd.  109 

Transposed. 
Where  is  thy  true  treasure  ?     Gold  says,  "  It  is  not  in  me  ;** 
and  the  Diamond  says,  "It  is  not  in  me."     Gold  is  poor 
Source  of  Friendship. — Dr.  Young. 
Lorenzo,  pride  repress ;  nor  hope  to  find 
A  friend,  but  what  has  found  a  friend  in  thee. 
Transposed. 
Lorenzo,  repress  thou  pride ;  nor  hope  thou  to  find  a  friend, 
only  in  him  who  has  already  found  a  friend  in  thee. 
True  Greatness. — Pope. 
Who  noble  ends  by  noble  means  obtains, 
Or,  failing,  smiles  in  exile  or  in  chains, 
Like  good  Aurelius  let  him  reign,  or  bleed 
Like  Socrates,  that  man  is  great  indeed. 
Transposed. 
That  man  is  great   indeed,  lei  him  to   reign  like  unto  good 
AiA-elius,  or  let  him  to  bleed  like  unto  Socrates,  who  obtains  noble 
ends  by  noble  means ;  or  that  man  is  great  indeed,  who,  failing 
to  obtain  noble  ends  by  noble  means,  smiles  in  exile  or  in  chaina. 
Invocation. — Pollok. 
Eternal  Spirit !  God  of  truth  !  to  whom 
All  things  seem  as  they  are,  inspire  my  song ; 
My  eye  unscale  :  me  what  is  substance  teach ; 
And  shadow  what,  while  I  of  things  to  come. 
As  past  rehearsing,  sing.     Me  thought  and  phrase 
Severely  aifling  out  the  whole  idea,  grant. 
Transposed. 
Eternal  Spirit !  God  of  truth !  to  whom  all  things  seem  to  be 
as  they  really  are,  inspire  thou  my  song ;  and  unscale  thou  my 
eyes  :  teach  thou  to  me  the  thing  which  is  substance  ;  and  teach 
ihou  to  me  the  thing  which  is  shadow,  while  I  sing  of  things 
which  are  to  come,  as  one  sings  of  things  which  are  past  rehear- 
sing.    Grant  thou  to  me  thought  and  phraseology  which  shall 
severely  sifl  out  the  whole  idea. 

The  Voyage  of  Life. 
How  lew,  favored  by  ev'ry  element, 
With  swelling  sails  make  good  the  promised  port, 
With  all  their  wishes  freighted  !     Yet  ev'n  these, 
Freighted  \»\lh  all  their  wishes,  soon  complain. 
Free  from  misfortune,  not  from  nature  free. 
They  ^ill  are  men  ;  and  when  is  man  secure  ? 
As  fatal  time,  as  storm.     The  rush  of  years 
Beats  down  their  strength  ;  their  numberless  escapes 
15 


170  ETmOLOOT  AND  SYNTAX. 

In  ruin  end :  and,  now,  their  proud  success 

But  plarts  new  terrors  on  the  victor's  brow. 

What  pain,  to  quit  the  world  just  made  their  own? 

Their  nests  so  deeply  downed  and  built  so  high  ! — 

Too  low  they  build,  who  build  beneath  the  stars. 
Transposed. 
How  few  persons,  favored  by  every  element,  safely  make  the 
promised  port  with  swelling  sails,  and  with  all  their  wishes  freight- 
ed  !  Yet  even  these  few  persons  who  do  safely  make  the  promised 
port  with  all  their  wishes  freighted,  soon  complain.  Though  they 
are  free  from  misfortunes,  yet  (<Ao«^A  and  yrt,  corresponding  con- 
junctions, form  only  one  connexion)  they  are  not  free  from  the 
course  of  nature,  for  they  still  are  men ;  and  when  is  man 
secure  ?  Time  is  as  fatal  to  him,  as  a  storm  is  to  the  mariner. — 
The  rush  of  years  boats  down  their  strength  ;  (tJiai  i>,  the  strength 
rf  these  few  ;)  and  their  numberless  escapes  end  in  ruin :  and 
then  their  proud  success  only  plants  new  terrors  on  the  vicfbr*s 
brow.  What  pain  it  is  to  them  to  quit  the  world,  just  as  they 
have  made  it  to  be  their  own  world  ;  when  their  nests  are  built 
80  high,  and  when  they  are  downed  so  deeply  ! — They  who  build 
beneath  the  stars,  build  too  low  for  their  own  safety. 
Reflections  on  a  Scitll. — Lord  Byron. 

Remove  yon  scull  from  out  the  scattered  heaps. 

Is  that  a  temple,  where  a  God  may  dwell  ? 
Why,  ev*n  the  worm  at  last  disdains  her  shattered  cell  ? 

Look  on  its  broken  arch,  its  ruined  wall, 

Its  chambers  desolate,  and  portals  foul ; 

Yes,  this  was  once  ambition's  airy  hall. 

The  dome  of  thought,  the  palace  of  the  soul. 

Behold,  through  each  lack-lustre,  eyeless  hole, 

The  gay  recess  of  wisdom  and  of  wit. 

And  passion's  host,  that  never  brooked  control. 

Can  all,  saint  sage,  or  sophist  ever  writ. 
People  this  lonely  tower,  this  tenement  refit  ? 

Transposed.* 
Remove  thou  yonder  scull  out  from  the  scattered  heaps.  Is 
that  a  temple,  where  a  God  may  dwell  ?  Why,  even  the  worm 
at  last  disdains  her  shattered  cell !  Look  thou  on  its  broken 
arch,  and  look  thou  on  its  ruined  wall,  and  on  its  desolate  cham- 
bers, and  on  its  foul  portals  : — yes,  this  scull  was  once  ambition's 
airy  hall ;  (it  was)  the  dome  of  thought,  the  palace  of  the  soul. 
Behold  thou,  through  each  lack-lustre,  eyeless  hole,  the  gay 
recess  of  wisdom   and  of  wit,  and  passion's  host,  which  never 


DEBIVATION.  171 

brooked  control,  Can  all  the  works  which  saints,  or  sages,  or 
sophists  have  ever  written,  repeople  this  lonely  tower,  or  can  they 
refi*  this  tenement  ? 

For  your  future  exercises  in  parsing,  you  may  select  pieces 
from  the  English  Reader,  or  any  other  grammatical  work.  I 
have  already  hinted,  that  parsing  in  poetry,  as  it  brings  more 
immediately  into  requisition  the  reasoning  faculties,  than  parsing 
in  prose,  will  necessarily  tend  more  rapidly  to  facilitate  your 
progress:  therefore  it  is  advisable  that  your  future  exercises  in 
this  way,  be  chiefly  confined  to  the  analysis  of  poetry.  Previous 
to  your  attempting  to  parse  a  piece  of  poetry,  you  ought  always 
to  transpose  it,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  examples  just  presented ; 
and  then  it  can  be  as  easily  analyzed  as  prose. 

Before  you  proceed  to  correct  the  following  exercises  in  false 
syntax,  you  may  turn  back  and  read  over  the  whole  thirteen 
lectures,  unless  you  have  the  subject-matter  already  stored  in 
your  mind. 


LECTURE  XIV. 

OF  DERIVATION. 


At  the  commencement  of  Lecture  II.,  I  informed  you  that 
Etymology  treats,  3dly,  of  derivation.  This  branch  of  Etymol- 
ogy, important  as  it  is,  cannot  be  very  extensively  treated  in  an 
elementary  work  on  grammar.  In  the  course  of  the  preceding 
lectures,  it  has  been  frequently  agitated ;  and  now  I  shall  offer  a 
few  more  remarks,  which  will  doubtless  be  useful  in  illustrating 
some  of  the  various  methods  in  which  one  word  is  derived  from 
another.  Before  you  proceed,  however,  please  to  turn  back  and 
read  again  what  is  advanced  on  this  subject  on  page  27,  and  in 
the  Philosophical  Notes. 

1.  Nouns  are  derived  from  verbs. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  nouns,  adjectives,  and  •ometimes 
from  adverbs. 

8.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  nouns. 

4.  Nouns  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

5.  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

1.  Nouns  are  derived  from  verbs;  as,  from  "to  love,"  comes 
•*  lover ;"  from  "  to  visit,  visiter;"  from  "  to  survive,  surviver." 
fro. 

In  the  following  instances,. and  in  many  others,  it  is  diffioult  to 


172  ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX. 

determine  whether  the  verb  was  deduced  from  the  noun,  or  the 
noun  from  the  verb,  viz.  "  Love,  to  love  ;  hate,  to  hate  ;  fear,  to 
fear;  sleep,  to  sleep  ;  walk,  to  walk  ;  ride,  to  ride;  aci,  to  act," 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  nouns,  adjectives,  and  sometimes 
from  adverbs  ;  as,  from  the  noun  *«//,  comes  "  to  salt ;''  from  the 
adjective  tparm,  "to  warm;"  and  from  the  adverh  forwardj  "to 
forward."  Sometimes  they  are  formed  by  lengthening  the  vowel, 
or  softening  the  consonant ;  as,  from  "  grass,  to  graze  ;"  sometimes 
by  adding  en;  as,  from  "length,  to  lengthen  ;"  especially  to  ad. 
jectives ;  as,  from  "  short,  to  shorten  ;  bright,  to  brighten." 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  nouns  in  the  following  manner : 
adjectives  denoting  plenty  are  derived  from  nouns  by  adding  y; 
as,  from  "  Health,  healthy  ;  wealth,  wealthy  ;  might,  mighty,"  dec. 

Adjectives  denoting  the  matter  out  of  which  any  thing  is  made, 
are  derived  from  nouns  by  adding  tn  ;  as,  from  "  Oak,  oaken ; 
wood,  wooden  ;  wool,  woollen,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  abundance  are  derived  from  nouns  by  add- 
ing yW;  as,  from  "Joy,  joyful;   sin,  sinful;  fruit,  fruitful,"  (kc. 

Adjectives  denoting  plenty,  but  with  some  kind  of  diminution, 
are  derived"  from  nouns  by  adding  some;  as,  from  "  Light,  light- 
some ;  trouble,  troublesome  ;  toil,  toilsome,"  <kc. 

Adjectives  denoting  want  are  derived  from  nouns  by  adding 
less  ;  as,  from  "  Worth,  worthless ;"  from  "  care,  careless ;  joy, 
joyless,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  likeness  are  derived  from  nouns  by  adding 
ly;  as,  from  "  Man,  manly ;  earth,  earthly ;  court,  courtly,"  dec. 

Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  other  adjectives,  or  from 
nouns  by  adding  ish  to  them  ;  which  termination  when  added  to 
adjectives,  imports  diminution,  or  lessening  the  quality ;  as, 
"  White,  whitish  ;"  i.  e.  somewhat  white.  When  added  to  nouns, 
it  signifies  similitude  or  tendency  to  a  character;  as,  "Child, 
childish ;  thief,  thievish." 

Some  adjectives  are  formed  from  nouns  or  verbs  by  adding  the 
termination  able;  and  those  adjectives  signify  capacity;  as, 
**  Answer,  answerable  ;  to  change,  changeable." 

4.  Nouns  are  derived  from  adjectives,  sometimes  by  adding  the 
termination  ness;  as,  "  White,  whiteness;  swift,  swiftness ;"  some- 
times by  adding  th  or  t,  and  making  a  small  change  in  some  of 
the  letters  ;  as,  "  Long,  length  ;  high,  height." 

5.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by  adding 
7y,  or  changing  le  into  ly ;  and  denote  the  same  quality  as  the 
adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived ;  as,  from  "  base,"  comes 
'*  basely  ;"  from  "  slow,  slowly  ;"  from  "  able,  ably." 


DCBIVATIOW.  173 

There  are  80  many  otner  ways  of  deriving  words  from  one 
Another,  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
enumerate  them.  The  pri«iitive  words  of  every  language  are 
very  few ;  the  derivatives  form  much  the  greater  number.  A 
few  more  instances  only  can  be  given  here. 

Some  nouns  are  derived  from  other  nouns,  by  adding  the  ter- 
minations hood  or  head,  shipy  ery,  toickj  rick,  dom,  ian,  tnent,  and 

Nouns  ending  in  hood  or  head,  are  such  as  signify  character  or 
qualities ;  as,  "  Manhood,  knighthood,  falsehood,"  Ace.    • 

Nouns  ending  in  ship,  are  those  that  signify  office,  «mploy- 
ment,  state,  or  condition  ;  as,  "  Lordship,  stewardship,  partner- 
ship,"  dec.  Some  nouns  in  ship  are  derived  from  adjectives ;  as, 
"  Hard,  hardship,"  &c. 

Nouns  which  end  in  ery,  signify  action  or  habit ;  as,  "  Slavery, 
foolery,  prudery,"  <kc.  Some  nouns  of  this  sort  come  from  adjec- 
tives ;  as,  "  Brave,  bravery,"  &c. 

Nouns  ending  in  wick,  rirJc,  and  dom,  denote  dominion,  juris- 
diction, or  condition  ;  as,  "  Bailiwick,  bishopric,  kingdom,  duke- 
dom, freedom,"  &c. 

Nouns  which  end  in  ian,  are  those  that  signify  profession  ;  as, 
"  Physician,  musician,"  dec.  Those  that  end  in  meTit  and  age, 
come  generally  from  the  French,  and  commonly  signify  the  act 
or  habit ;  as,  "  Commandment,"  "  usage." 

Some  nouns  ending  in  ard,  are  derived  from  verbs  or  adjec- 
tives, and  denote  character  or  habit ;  as,  "  Drunk,  drunkard ; 
dote,  dotard." 

Some  nouns  have  the  form  of  diminutives ;  but  these  are  not 
many.  They  are  formed  by  adding  the  terminations  kin,  ling, 
ing,  ock,  el,  and  the  like  ;  as, "Lamb,  lambkin  ;  goose,  gosling; 
duck,  duckling ;  hill,  hillock  ;  cock,  cockerel,",  dec. 

OF  PREPOSITIONS  USED  AS  PREFIXES. 
I  nhall  conclude  this  lecture  by  presenting  and  explaining  a  list  r»f  Latin 
and  Greek  prepositions  which  are  extensively  used  in  KngRsh  as  prefixes. 
By  carefully  studying  their  signification,  you  will  be  better  qualified  to  un- 
derstand the  meaning  of  those  words  into  the  composition  of  which  they 
euter,,/uid  of  which  they  form  a  material  port. 

I.  LATIN  PREFIXES. 
A,  ab,  ab$ — signify  from  or  away ;  as,  a^ert,  to  turn  from ;  abject,  to  throw 
away ;  tib»4raet,  to  draw  away. 

Ad — to  or  at ;  as,  ad-kere,  to  stick  to ;  ad'mire,  to  wonder  at 
Ante — means  before ;  aa,  amte-tedent,  going  before. 
Cirettm — signifies  roond,  aboat;  as,  eiremm  navigate,  to  sail  round, 
t'on,  am,  co,  «rf— togeiner :  as,  com^j'oin,  to  join  together  ;  rom-prtts,  to 
mess  together ;  co-cperaU,  to  work  together ;  col-laptt,  to  fall  together. 
CoWro-against ;  as,  amtra-dict,  to  speak  against 
15* 


174  BTTMOLOGT. 

De — Irora,  down  ;  u,  de-dtict,  to  take  from ;  de-$eend,  to  go  down. 

Di,  du — ftsunder.  away ;  a«,  di-iaeeraUp  to  tear  asunder ;  di*tiu*»,  to  i 
away. 

E,  ef,  ex  •  oot ;  aa,  e^eet,  ti  dirow  ont;  ef-Jlux,  to  flow  oat;  ex-clr»de,  t? 
•hut  out. 

Extra — beyond ;  as,  extra-ordinary,  beyond  what  is  ordinary. 

In,  im,  il,  ir — (i«,  Gothic,  inna,  a  cave  or  cell ;)  as,  in-/u*e,  to  pour  in. 
Thei*e  prefixes,  when  incorporated  witli  adjectives  or  nouns,  commonly  re- 
verse their  meaning ;  as,  in-tuffieient,  im-poUte,  il^egiiinuUe,  irreverence,  ir 
re$oiuie. 

JtUer — between ;  as,  iuUr^pote,  to  put  between. 

liUro — within,  into ;  iniro-vert,  to  turn  within ;  introduce,  to  lead  into. 

Ob,  op— denote  iippodtion  ;  as,  ob-jeet,  to  bring  against ;  op-pugn,  to  oppose. 

Per — through,  by ;  as,  peTombuUUe,  to  walk  through ;  per^utps,  by  nap*. 

Poet — after ;  as,  pQ9t-*eripl,  written  after ;  pott-fix,  placed  after. 

Prm,  pre — before ;  as,  prefix,  to  fix  before. 

Pro— for,  fortli,  forward ;  as,  pro-tunin,  for  a  noun ;  pro-tend,  to  stretch 
forth ;  pro-jeet,  to  shoot  forwaid. 

Prater — {NUt,  beyond  :  as,  preter-perfeet,  pastperfect ;  preter-naiural,  be- 
yond Ui«  course  of  nature. 

Re — again  or  back  ;  as,  re-perute,  to  peruse  again  ;  re4race,  to  trace  back. 

Jiftro — backwards;  as,  retrospective,  looking  backvirards. 

8e — aside,  apart ;  as,  ee-duee,  to  draw  aside. 

Syb — under :  ns,  tmlhoerike^  to  write  under,  or  eub-tign. 

Subter — under ;  as,  tubterfiuoue,  flowing  under. 

Super — above  or  over ;  as,  tvper-tcribe,  to  write  above ;  tuper-vite,  to 
OTerl«»ok. 

7Vaa«— <fTer,  beyond,  from  one  pUce  to  another ;  as,  trana-port,  to  carry 
over ;  trant-grese,  to  pnw  beyond. 

II.     GREEK  PREFIXES. 

A — signifies  privation ;  as,  anonymons,  without  name. 

^iRp4»— both  or  two ;  as,  ampkirinouf,  partaking  of  both  or  two  natures. 

Anli — against ;  as,  anti-masonry,  against  masonry. 

Z>»a— tlirough ;  as,  dia-meler,  line  passing  through  a  circle. 

Hyper — over  ;  as,  kyper-criiical,  over  or  too  criucal. 

j^ypo — under,  implying  concealment  or  disguise;  as,  kypo-erite,  one  dis 
sembling  his  real  character. 

Meta — denotes  change  or  transmutation ;  as,  metormorphoee,  to  change  the 
sha[)e. 

Para— ccmtraty  or  against;  as,  para-dox,  a  thing  contrary  to  reoeired 
opinion. 

PeH  —round  about ;  as,  peri-phra*it,  circumlocution. 

Syn,  $yl,  *yin— together ;  as,  tyn-tax,  a  placing  together ;  eyn-od,  a  meet 
mg  or  coming  together;  tyl-lable,  that  portion  of  a  word  which  is  taken  to- 
gether; tyrn-pathy,  fellow-feeling,  or  feeling  together 


IT.) 

RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 

WITH   ADDITIONAL  EXERCISES  IN  FALSE   SYNTAX. 


The  third  part  of  Grammar  is  Syntax,  whicli 
treats  of  the  agreement  and  government  of  words, 
and  of  their  proper  arrangement  in  a  sentence. 

Syntax  consists  of  two  parts,  Concord  and  Gov- 
emnienL 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has 
with  another,  in  gend-^.r,  person,  number,  or  case. 

For  the  illustration  of  agreement  and  government,  see  pages 
52,  and  53. 

For  the  definition  of  a  sentence,  and  the  transposition  of  its 
words  and  members,  see  pages  119,  124,  128,  and  167. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are  the 
nominative  or  subject,  the  verb  or  attribute,  or  word 
that  makes  the  affirmation,  and  the  object^  or  thing 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  verb ;  as,  "  A  wise  maji 
governs  his  passiorisJ*^  In  this  sentence,  man  is  the 
subject;  governs,  the  attribute;  and  passions  tlie 
object. 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  to- 
gether, making  sometimes  a  part  of  a  sentence,  and 
sometimes  a  whole  sentence. 

Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  word  or  words, 
in  order  to  avoid  disagreeable  and  unnecessary  repe- 
titions, and  to  express  our  ideas  concisely,  and  with 
strength  and  elegance. 

In  this  recapitulation  of  the  rules,  Syntax  is  presented  in  a 
condensed  form,  many  of  the  essential  Notes  being  omitted. 
This  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  my  general  plan,  in  which 
Etymology  and  Syntax,  you  know  are  blended.  Hence,  to  ac- 
quire a  complete  knowledge  of  Syntax  from  this  work,  you  muH 
look  over  the  whole. 


178  RITLKS   OF   SYNTAX. 

You  may  now  proceed  and  parse  the  following  additional  exei 
cises  in  false  Syntax ;  and,  as  you  analyze,  endeavor  to  correct 
all  the  errors  without  looking  at  the  Key.  If,  in  correcting  these 
examples,  you  should  be  at  a  loss  in  assigning  the  reasons  why 
the  constructions  are  erroneous,  you  can  refer  to  the  manner 
adopted  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

BI7E.B  I. 

The  article  a  or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the  sin- 
gular number  only,'  individually  or  collectively ;  as, 
"  A  star,  an  eagle,  a  score,  a  thousand." 

BVI^K  II. 

The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  in  the 
singular  or  plural  number ;  as,  "  The  star,  the  stars  ; 
the  hat,  the  hats." 

NoTB  1.  A  nice  distinction  in  the  meuiine  ia  aometiiDM  effected  by  the 
Tue  or  omiaaon  of  the  articla  a.  If  I  say,  "  He  beliaved  with  a  little  reve- 
rence,'* my  meaning  is  podtire.  But  if  I  say,  "  He  behaved  with  little  reve- 
rence," my  meaning  is  negative.  By  the  former,  I  rather  praise  a  person  ; 
by  the  latter.  I  dispraise  him.  When  I  say,  "  There  were  few  m"n  with 
hmi,"  I  speak  diminutively,  ax»d  mean  to  represent  them  as  inconsiderable ; 
whereas,  when  I  saTt  **  Tfaiare  wen  a  few  men  with  him,"  I  evidently  intend 
to  make  the  most  of  them. 

2.  The  indefinite  article  sometimes  has  the  meaning  of  everf  or  each;  as, 
"  They  cost  five  shUlinn  a  doxen ;"  that  is,  *  every  dozen.* 

"  A  man  ne  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 
"  And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year  !" 
^lat  is,  *  every  year.' 

3.  When  several  adjectives  are  connected,  and  express  the  various  quali- 
ties of  things  individoally  different,  though  alike  in  name,  the  article  should 
be  repeated  ;  but  when  the  qualities  all  belong  to  the  same  thing  or  things, 
the  article  should  not  be  repeated.  "  A  black  and  a  white  calf,"  signifies,  A 
black  ealf,  and  a  white  em^;  but  "  A  black  and  white  calf  describes  the 
two  colors  of  one  calf. 

RI7I.B  ni. 

The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb ;  as,  "  1 
learn,  thou  learnest,  he  learns,  they  learn." 

R17E.K  IT. 

The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  num- 
ber and  person ;  as,  "  The  bird  sings^  the  birds  sing^ 
thou  singesi,^'* 

NoTK  1 .  Everv  verb,  when  it  is  not  in  the  infinitive  mood,  must  have  a  nomi- 
native, expressed  or  implied;  as,  "  Awake,  arise ;"  that  is.  Awake  ye ;  arise  ye. 

2.  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  subject  of  the  aflRrraation,  it  must  agree  with  that  which  is 
more  naturallv  its  subject;  as,  "  The  wages  of  sin  is  death;  His  meat  leeu 
ocusts  and  wild  honey  ;""  "  His  pavilion  ttere  dark  waters  aiid  tliick  clouds.** 


ROLES  OF  SYNTAX.  177 

EXAMPLES  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Frequent  comiru'ssion  of  sin  harden  men  in  it. 

Grrat  pains  has  been  taiten  to  reconcile  the  parties. 

So  nnuv  h  both  of  ability  and  merit,  are  seldom  found. 

Tiie  sincere  is  always  esteemed. 

Not  one  of  them  are  happy. 

What  avails  the  best  sentiments,  if  peopJo  do  not  live  suitably 
to  them  ? 

Disappointments  sinks  the  heart  of  man ;  but  the  renewal  of 
hope  give  consolation. 

The  variety  of  the  productions  of  genius,  like  that  of  the 
operations  of  nature,  are  without  limit. 

A  variety  of  blessings  have  been  conferred  upon  us. 

Thou  cannot  heal  him,  it  is  true,  but  thou  may  do  something 
to  relieve  him. 

In  piety  and  virtue  consist  the  happiness  of  man. 
O  thou,  my  voice  inspire, 
Who  touched  Isaiah's  hallowed  lips  with  fire. 
Note  1.  Will  martial  flames  for  ever  fire  thy  mind. 
And  never,  never  be  to  Heaven  resigned  ? 

He  was  a  man  whose  inclinations  led  him  to  be  corrupt,  tuid 
had  great  abilities  to  manage  the  business. 
Note  2.  The  crown  of  virtue  is  peace  and  honor. 

His  chief  occupation  a'ld  enjoyment  were  controversy; 

RIJL.E   T. 

When  an  address  is  made,  the  noun  or  pronoun 
addressed,  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  inclependent' 
as,  "  Phto,  thou  reasonest  well ;  "  Do,  Ti^m^  said 
my  uncle  Toby." 

Note  1.  A  noun  is  independent,  when  it  has  no  verb  to  A|ree  with  it- 
2.  Interjection.i  reqtiire  the  objective  case  of  a  pronoun  of  \hejirtt  person 

after  them,  but  the  nominative  of  a  nouu  or  pronoon  of  the  aecond  or  tkird 

person  :  as,  "  Ah !  m« ;  Oh  !  Uiou ;  O  !  virtue." 

RIJL.E  VI. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  placed  before  a  participle,  and 
being  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  in 
the  noniinativ*^  case  absolute  ;  as,  "  Shanxe  being  lost, 
all  virtue  is  lost ;"  *'  The  sun  being  risen,  we  traveU 
led  on." 

NoT«.  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute  and  independent, 
tfintild  belong  tu  some  verb  expressed  or  understood ;  aa,  "  To  whom  thus, 
Adam:*'  that  is.  tpokt. 


iTfl  RULBS  OF  SYNTAX. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Him  Destroyed, 
Or  won  to  what  may  work  his  u^ter  loss, 
All  this  will  follow  soon. 
Note. — Two  substantives,  when  they  come  together,  and  C3  noi 
signify  the  same  thing,  the  former  must  be  in  the  genitive  case 
Virtue,  however  it  may  be  neglected  for  a  time,  men  are  ««c 
constituted   as  ultimately  to  acknowledge  and  respect  genuine 

BriiB  TII. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  or  nouns  and  pronouns,  si<r. 
nifying  the  same  thing,  are  put,  by  apposition,  in  the 
same  case ;  as,  **  Paul^  the  apostle  ;"  "  Joram^  the 
king  ;"  "  Solomon^  the  son  of  David,  king  of  Israel 
wrote  many  proverbs." 

NoTK.  A  noun  is  sometimes  put  in  aflposidon  with  a  sentence ;  as,  "  Th< 
•herifr  has  just  seized  and  sold  nis  valuable  library — (vhieK  was)  a  mitfor 
tmne  that  greatly  depressed  him." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

We  ouiiht  to  love  God,  he  who  created  and  sustains  all  things 

The  pronoun  he  in  this  sentence,  is  improperly  used  in  the  nominative  case 
It  is  the  object  of  the  action  of  the  transitive  verb  "  love,"  and  put  by  appo 
ntion  with  "God  ;"  therefore  it  should  be  tiie  objective  case,  him,  accorain] 
to  Rule  7.     (Repeat  the  Rule,  and  correct  the  following.) 

I  saw  Juliet  and  her  brother,  they  that  you  visited. 

They  slew  Varus,  he  that  was  nientioned  before. 

It  was  John,  him  who  preached  repentance. 

Adams  and  Jefferson,  them  who  died  on  the  fourth  of  Jul] 
1826,  were  both  signers  and  the  firm  supporters  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence. 

Augustus  the  Roman  emperor,  him  who  succeeded  Juliui 
Cesar,  is  variously  described  by  historians. 

BI7I.E    Till. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  or  nouns  and  pronouns,  ir 
the  singular  number,  connected  by  copulative  con- 
junctions, must  have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns 
agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Socrates  anc 
Plato  were  wise  ;  they  were  eminent  philosophers.'''* 

^  NoTK  1.  When  each  or  every  relates  to  two  or  more  nominatives  in  tbi 
nngnlar,  although  connected  by  a  copulative,  the  verb  must  agree  with  eacl 
of  them  in  the  sin°:ular ;  as,  "  Every  leaf,  and  every  twig,  and  every  drop  o 


BULBS  OP  SYNTAX.  179 

2.  When  UiQ  Ringular  nominative  of  a  complex  sentence,  has  another  noun 
joined  to  it  with  a  preposition,  it  is  customary  to  put  the  verb  ami  pronoun 
agreeing  with  it,  in  the  singular;  as,  '*  Proei>erity  with  humility,  rendert  iU 
possesMor  truly  amiable ;"  "  The  General,  also,  in  coi^unction  with  the  oflli* 
cen,  ka*  appbed  for  redress." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Coffee  and  sugar  grows  in  the  West  Indies :  it  is  exported  in 
large  quantities. 

Two  siugular  nouns  coupled  together,  fonn  a  plural  idea.  The  verb  grow$ 
is  improper,  because  it  expresses  tlie  acttun  of  both  it«  nominatives,  "  coffee 
and  sugar,"  which  two  nominatives  are  connected  by  the  copulative  conjunc- 
tion, tmd :  therefore  the  verb  should  be  plural,  gnno ;  and  then  it  would 
agree  with  coffee  and  sugar,  according  to  Rule  8.  (Repeat  tlie  Rule.)  The 
pronoun  it,  as  it  represents  both  the  nouns,  '*  coffee  and  sugar,"  ought  also  to 
De  ploral,  they,  agreeably  to  Rule  8.  The  sentence  should  be  wntten  thus, 
"  Coffee  and  sugar  grow  in  the  West  Indies :  they  are  exported  in  largo 
quantities." 

Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 

Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 

Life  and  health  is  both  uncertain. 

Wisdom,  virtue,  happiness,  dwells  with  the  golden  mediocrity. 

The  planetary  system,  boundless  space,  and  the  immense  ocean, 
affects  the  mind  with  sensations  of  astonishment. 

What  signifies  the  counsel  and  care  of  preceptors,  when  you 
think  you  have  no  need  of  assistance  ? 

Their  love,  and  their  hatred,  and  their  envy,  is  now  perished. 

Why  is  whiteness  and  coldness  in  snow  ? 

Obey  the  commandment  of  thy  father,  and  the  law  of  thy 
mother ;  bind  it  continually  upon  thy  heart. 

Pride  and  vanity  always  render  its  possessor  despicable  in  th© 
eyes  of  the  judicious. 

There  is  error  and  discrepance  in  the  schemes  of  the  orthoe- 
pists,  which  shows  the  impossibility  of  carrying  them  into  effect. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  THE  NOTE. 

Every  man,  woman,  and  child,  were  numbered. 

Not  proper ;  for,  although  and  couples  things  together  so  as  to  present  the 
whole  at  one  view,  yet  every  has  a  contrary  effect :  it  distributes  them,  and 
brings  each  wparately  and  singly  under  consideration.  Were  nnmbercd  is 
therefore  improper.  It  should  be,  "  too*  numbered,"  in  the  singular,  accord- 
ing to  the  Note.     (Repeat  it) 

When  benignity  and  gentleness  reign  in  our  breasts,  every 
ifson  and  every  occurrence  are  beheld  in  the  most  favorable 


BCIiB  IX. 

Two  or  more  nouns,  or  nouns  and  pronouns,  in 
the  sing^dar  number,  connected  by  disjunctive  con- 


ISO  nVLBB  OP  SYNTAX. 

junctions,  must  nave  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns, 
agreeing  with  them  in  the  singular;  as,  "  Neitlier 
John  nor  James  has  learned  his  lesson." 

NoT£  1.  When  singular  pronoun*,  or  a  noun  and  pronoun,  of  different 
persons,  are  disjunctively  connected,  the  verb  must  agree,  in  |>er8on,  with 
tiiat  which  i«  placed  nearest  to  it ;  as,  "  Thou  or  I  am  in  &ult ;  I  or  thou  art 
to  blaroe :  I,  or  thou,  or  he,  w  the  author  of  it."  But  it  would  be  better  to 
•ay.  '*  Either  I  am  to  blame  or  thou  art,"  &c.  * 

2.  When  *  diqonctive  occurs  between  a  singular  noun  or  pronoun  and  a 
plttral  one,  the  verb  must  agree  with  the  plural  noun  or  pronoun,  which 
•hould  ^eneraily  be  placed  next  to  the  verb ;  as,  "  Neither  poverty  nor  riches 
were  injurious  to  him ;"  **  I  or  they  were  offended  by  it** 

Constructions  like  these  ought  generally  to  be  avoided. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  this  mistake. 

The  verb,  hope  cansed,  in  this  sentence,  is  improperly  used  in  the  plural, 
because  it  expreaaea  ttte  action,  not  ofboth,  but  oteitiier  the  one  or  the  otiier 
of  its  nominatiTea ;  therefore  it  should  be  in  the  sinK'ular,  has  caused  :  and 
then  it  would  agree  with  "  ignorance  or  negligence, '  agreeably  to  Rule  9. 
(Repeat  the  Rule.) 

A  circle  or  a  square  are  the  same  in  idea. 

Neither  whiteness  nor  redness  are  in  the  poryn  ».  ry. 

Neither  of  them  are  remarkable  for  precision. 

Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  clock  or  a  watch,  which  move 
merely  as  they  are  moved. 

When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune,  affect  us,  the 
aincerity  of  friendship  is  proved. 

Man's  happiness  or  misery  are,  in  a  great  measure,  put  into 
his  own  hands. 

Despise  no  infirmity  of  mind  or  body,  nor  any  condition  of 
life,  for  they  may  be  thy  own  lot. 

The  prince,  as  well  as  the  people,  were  blameworthy. 

A  collective  noun  or  noun  of  multitude,  convey- 
ing unity  of  idea,  generally  has  a  verb  or  pronoun 
agreeing  with  it  in  the  singular;  as,  "The  meeting  was 
large,  and  it  held  three  hours." 

NoTX      Rules  10,  and  11,  are  limited  in  their  application.     See  page  59. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
The  nation  are  powerful. 
The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  up  the  channel. 
The  church  have  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishment. 
The  flock,  afld  not  the  fleece,  are,  or  ought  to  be,  the  objects 


1ULB3  OF  SYNTAX.  161 

That  nation  waa  once  powerful ;  but  now  they  are  feeble. 

RIJT.K  XI. 

A  noun  of  multitude,  conveying  plurality  of  idea, 
must  have  a  verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the 
plural ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided  in  their  senti- 
ments." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

My  people  doth  not  consider. 

The  multitude  eagerly  pursues  pleasure  as  its  chief  good. 

The  committee  was  divided  in  its  sentiments,  and  it  has  refer, 
red  the  business  to  the  general  meeting. 

The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  give  it  sorrow,     j 

RVE.B   XII. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  gov- 
erned by  the  noun  it  possesses ;  as,  "  MarCs  happi- 
ness ;"  **  Its  value  is  great." 

NoTB  1.  When  the  posaessor  is  described  by  a  circumlocution,  the  po»- 
seMive  sign  should  generally  be  applied  to  the  last  term  only  ;  as,  "  The  duke 
of  Bridgevater'i  canal ;  The  bixhop  of  Landaff^s  excellent  book  ;  The  cap- 
tain  of  the  fruard't  house."     This  usage,  however,  ought  generally  to  be 

'Thati 


avoided.     Tne  words  do  not  literally  convey  the  ideas  intended.     What  non- 
sense to  say,  "  This  is  ike  governor  of  Okio^s  house  !*' 


2.  When  nouns  in  the  posacasive  caae  are  in  apposition,  and  follow  each 
tiie  possessive  sign  is  ee         " 
only  ;  as,  "  For  David  my  $eroarWa  sake  ;  John  the  Baptist's  head  ;  The  canal 


other  in  quick  succession,  uie  possessive  sign  is  generally  annexed  to  the  last 


was  built  in  consequence  of  De  Witt  Clinton  the  governor's  advice." 

But  when  a  pause  is  prtiper,  and  the  governing  noun  not  expressed,  the 
sign  should  be  applied  to  the  first  possessive  only,  and  understooa  to  tlie  rest; 
as,  "  I  reside  at  Lord  Stormonfs,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor." 

3.  //*,  the  possessive  case  of  it,  is  often  improperly  used  for  'tis,  or,  it  is ; 
as,  "  Its  my  book:  Its  his,"  &c.;  instead  of,  "It  is  my  book;  or,  'Tis  my 
book  ;  //  is  hi« ;  or,  '  Tis  his." 

4.  Participle?  frequently  govern  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case  i 
as,  "  In  case  of  his  majesty's  dying  without  issue,  &c.;  Upon  Ood's  kaving 
ended  all  his  works.  Sue. ;  I  remember  Us  being  reckoned  a  great  exploit ; 
At  my  coming  in  he  said,"  &c.  But  in  such  instances,  the  participle  with  its 
adjuncts  may  be  considered  a  substantive  phrase,  according  to  Note  2,  Rule  28 

5.  Phrases  like  these,  "  A  work  of  Washington  Irving's ;  A  bmther  of 
Joseph's  ;  A  fnend  of  mine  ;  A  neighbor  of  yours"  do  not,  as  some  have  sup- 
posed, each  contain  a  double  poseeaaire,  or  two  poaseasive  caaea,  but  they 
may  be  thus  oonstruad ;  "  A  work  of  (out  of  or,  among  the  nmmber  of)  Wask 
tngton  Irving's  works ;  that  is.  One  of  the  works  of  Washington  Irving ; 
One  of  the  brother*  o{  Joseph;  One  friend  oi  my  friends;  On©  neighbor  ai 
your  neighbors." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Homers  works  are  much  admired. 

Nevertheless,  Asa  his  heart  was  not  perfect  with  the  Lord. 

16 


182  RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

James  Hurt,  his  book,  bought  August  the  19,  1829. 

Note  1.  It  was  the  men's,  women's,  and  children's  lot  to  suffer 
great  calamities. 

This  is  Peter's,  John's,  and  Andrew's  occupation. 

Note  2.  This  is  Campbell's  the  poet's  production. 

The  silk  was  purchased  at  Brown's,  the  mercer's  and  haber- 
dasher's. 

Note  4.  Much  will  depend  on  the  pupil  composing  frequently. 

Much  depends  on  this  rule  being  observed. 

The  measure  failed  in  consequence  of  the  president  neglecting 
to  lay  it  before  the  council. 

BVL.E    XIII. 

Personal  pronouns  must  agree  with  the  nouus  for 
which  they  stand,  in  gender  and  number;  as  "/oAn 
writes,  and  he  will  soon  write  well." 

NoTS.  YoQ,  thoagh  frequently  employed  to  repro«ent  a  smgalar  noun,  ia 
always  plureU  inform ;  therefore  the  verb  connected  with  it  should  be  plural; 
as, ''  My  friend,  you  were  mistaken."     See  pages  d9  and  100. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Every  man  will  be  rewarded  according  to  their  works. 

Incorrect,  because  the  pronoun  their  does  not  agree  in  gender  or  number 
with  the  noim  "  man,"  for  which  it  stands;  consequently  Rule  13,  is  violated. 
Tkeir  should  be  Am  ;  and  then  the  pronoun  would  be  of  the  masculine  gen- 
ler,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  man,  according  to  Rule  13.  (Repeat 
ite  Rule.) 

An  orator's  tongue  should  be  agreeable  to  the  ear  of  their 
tudience. 

Rebecca  took  goodly  raiment,  and  put  them  on  Jacob. 

Take  handfuls  of  ashes,  and  let  Moses  sprinkle  it  towards  hea- 
ven, in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh,  and  it  shall  become  small  dust. 

No  one  should  incur  censure  for  being  tender  of  their  repu- 
tation. 

Note.  Horace,  you  was  blamed  ;  and  I  think  you  was  worthy 
of  censure. 

Witness,  where  was  you  standing  during  the  transaction  ? 
How  far  was  you  from  the  defendant  ? 

RUI^E  XIT. 

Relative  pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents,  m 
gender,  person,  and  number;  as,  "Thou  who  lovesi 
wisdom ;"  "  I  who  speak  from  experience." 

Note.  When  a  relative  pronoun  is  preceded  by  two  antecederits  of  dif 
ferent  persons,  the  relative  and  the  verb  may  agree  in  person  with  either,  but 
not  without  regard  to  the  sense  ;  as,  ^*  I  am  the  man  vko  command  you  ;"  or 


RULES   OF   SYNTAX.  168 

f  I  ftm  thA  mnn  icho  eommtmdt  jou."  The  meaning  of  the  firai  of  these  ex* 
•mples  will  more  obviooaly  appear,  if  we  render  it  thus :  "  I  who  command 
you.  am  ihe  man." 

When  the  agreement  of  the  relative  has  been  6xed  with  either  of  the  pre* 
eeding  anteceuenu,  it  mnat  be  preserved  throughout  the  sentence ;  aa,  "  I 
am  the  Lord,  thai  maketh  all  things  ;  that  ttretchetK  forth  the  heavena  alone  i 
that  tpreadeth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself,"  &c. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Thou  who  has  been  a  witness  of  the  fact,  canst  state  it. 

The  wheel  killed  another  man,  which  make  the  sixth  which 
have  lost  their  lives  by  this  means. 

Thou  great  First  Cause,  least  understood! 

Who  all  my  sense  confined. 

NoUy  2d  part.  Thou  art  the  Lord,  who  didst  choose  Abra- 
ham, and  brought  him  forth  out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees. 

BUIiB  XT. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb, 
when  no  nominative  comes  between  it  and  the  verb : 
as,  "  The  master  who  taught  us,  was  eminent 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

If  he  will  not  hear  his  best  friend,  whom  shall  be  sent  to  ad- 
monish  him. 

This  is  the  man  whom,  he  informed  me,  was  my  benefactor. 

RVI.E  XTI. 

When  a  nominative  comes  between  the  relative 
and  the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by  the  follow- 
ing verb,  or  by  some  other  word  in  its  own  member 
of  the  sentence ;  as,  "  He  whom  I  serve,  is  eternal." 

NoTK  I.  IVho,  which,  tehat,  the  relative  that,  and  their  compounds,  tchort' 
ever,  whomsoever,  &c.,  though  in  the  objective  case,  are  always  placed  be- 
fore the  Terb ;  a«,  "  He  whom  ye  $eek,  has  gone  hence." 

2.  Kvery  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  relates,  either  ox> 
presswl  or  implie<l ;  a^,  "  IVho  steiils  my  purse,  steals  trash  ;"  that  is,  he  who, 

3.  The  pnmouns  whichsoever,  whatsoever,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  ele- 
gantly divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  corresponding  nouns ;  at,  "  On 
which  side  soever  the  kin^  cast  his  eyes,"  «fec. 

4.  The  pronoun  what  is  sometimes  improperly  used  instead  of  the  cou- 
junction  that ;  as,  "  He  would  not  believe  but  what  I  was  in  &ult."  It  should 
be,  "  but  thai,"  &c. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

That  is  the  friend  who  I  sincerely  esteem. 

Not  proper,  because  who,  which  is  the  object  of  the  action  expreeaed  by 
the  tnitwhiYa  rerb  "  eMteem,**  is  in  the  nommative  ett^.     It  nnght  to  be  whom. 


184  RULES   07  SYNTAX. 

in  the  objective ;  aiid  then  it  would  be  governed  by  esteem,  accord iiig  u^ 
Rule  16.  (Rf peal  the  Rule:) — and,  also,  accordbg  to  Rule  20.  "  That  ii 
the  i'riend  vkom  I  sincerely  esteem." 

They  who  much  is  given  to,  will  have  much  to  answer  for. 

From  the  character  of  those  who  you  associate  with,  your 
own  will  be  estimated. 

He  is  a  man  who  I  greatly  respect. 

Our  benefactors  and  tutors  are  the  persons  who  we  ought  to 
love,  and  who  we  ought  to  be  grateful  to. 

They  who  conscience  and  virtue  support,  may  smile  at  the 
caprices  of  fortune. 

Who  did  you  walk  with? 

Who  did  you  see  there  ? 

Who  did  you  give  the  book  to  t 

When  a  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative 
kind,  it  refers  to  the  word  or  phrase  containing  the 
answer  to  the  question  for  its  subsequent,  which  sub- 
sequent must  agree  in  case  with  the  interrogative ; 
as,  "  Whose  book  is  that?  Joseph's;^  "  Who  gave 
you  this?  John.^ 

Note.  ^Vhelher  the  interroeative  really  refers  to  a  subsequent  or  not,  is 
doubtful ;  but  it  is  certain  that  the  subsequent  should  agree  in  case  with  the 
interrogative. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Who  gave  John  those  books  ?     Us.     Of  whom  did  you  buy 
them  ?     Of  a  bookseller,  he  who  lives  in  Pearl-street. 
Who  walked  with  you  ?     My  brother  and  him. 
Who  will  accompany  me  to  the  country  ?     Her  and  me. 

1KUI.B   XTIII. 

Adjectives  belong  to,  and  qualify  nouns,  expressed 
or  understood ;  as,  "  He  is  a  good,  as  well  as  a  wise^ 
man." 

Note  1.  Adjectives  frequently  belong  to  pronouns ;  as,  "  /am  mUerable  ; 
He  is  industrious." 

2.  Numeral  adjectives  belong  to  nouns,  which  nouns  must  agree  in  num- 
ber with  their  adjectives,  when  of  the  cardinal  kind  ;  as,  "  Ten/e^-i ;  Eighty 
fatkoms."  But  some  anomalous  and  figurative  expressions  form  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule ;  as,  "  A  fleet  oi  forty  sail;"  •-  Two  hundred  head  of  cattle  " 

3.  Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  to  a  part 
of  a  sentence ;  as,  "  To  see  is  pleasant ;  To  be  blind  is  unfortunate ;  To  die 
for  our  country  is  glorious." 

4.  Adjectives  are  often  used  to  modify  the  sense  of  other  adjectives,  or  the 
•ction  <M  verbs,  and  to  express  the  quality  of  things  in  connexion  with  tlio 


SVLBS   OP   STNTAZ.  166 

action  bj  which  that  quality  is  produced ;   aa,  "  Red  kai  iron ;  Pale  hime 
lining ;  Detp  tea-frreen  meh ;  The  apples  boil  tofl ;  Open  vour  hand  wide 

The  rlav  bums  irhife  ;  The  fire  bums  hlue ;  The  eggs  boil  hard." 

5.  when  un  adjective  is  preceded  by  a  preposition,  and  the  noun  is  andci- 
•tood,  the  two  words  may  bo  considered  an  adverbial  phrase ;  as,  "  In  gene- 
ral, in  particular;"  that  is,  generally,  particularly. 

6.  Adjectives  should  be  placed  next  to  the  nouns  which  they  qualify ;  as, 
"  A  tract  of  c""'i  hinil." 

7.  We  should  cenernlly  avoid  comparing  such  adjectives  as  do  not  literally 
admit  of  comparison  ;  such  a»,  more  impottible,  most  impossible;  mor^  «fi»* 
eanqii^rable,  more  perfect,  3f^e.     See  Remarks  on  adjectives,  page  76. 

8.  When  an  '  V  r>r  an  adverb  is  used  in  comparing  two  objects,  it 
should  be  in  i  itive  degree;  but  when  more  than  two  are  com- 
pared, the  suj)  ii:ht  to  be  employed  ;  as,  "  Julia  is  the  taller  of  the 
two;  Her  specimen  is  the  best  of  the  three." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Note  2.  The  boat  carries  thirty  tun. 

The  chasm  was  twenty  foot  broad,  and  one  hundred  fatliom  in 
depth. 

^ott  6.  He  bought  a  new  pair  of  shoes,  and  an  elegant  piece 
of  furniture. 

My  cousin  gave  his  fine  pair  of  horses  for  a  poor  tract  of  land, 

Note  7.  The  contradictions  of  impiety  are  still  more  incom- 
pre  hens!  ble. 

It  is  the  most  uncertain  way  that  can  be  devised. 

This  is  a  more  perfect  model  than  I  ever  saw  before. 

Isoit  8.  Which  of  those  two  cords  is  the  strongest  ? 

I  was  at  a  loss  to  determine  which  was  the  wiser  of  the  three. 

R171.K  XIX. 

Adjective  pronouns  belong  to  nouns,  expressed  or 
understood ;  as,  "  Any  man,  all  men." 

NoTK  1.  The  demonstrative  adjective  pronouns  must  agree  in  number 
with  their  nouns ;  as,  "  ThU  book,  ihete  books ;  thai  sort,  those  sorts." 

2.  The  pronominal  ac^jectives,  each,  every,  eiiher,  neither,  another,  and  one, 
ftgree  with  nouns  in  the  singular  number  only ;  as,  "  Each  man,  every  per- 
son, another  lesson ;"  unless  the  plural  nouns  convey  a  collective  idea :  as, 
"  Every  six  months.'* 

3.  Either  is  often  improperly  employed  instead  of  e^h ;  as,  "  The  king  of 
Israel,  and  Jeboshaphat  the  king  of  Jndah,  sat  either  ci  them  on  his  throne." 
Each  si^ifiea  both  taken  separately ;  either  imnliea  only  the  one  or  the  other 
taken  disJTmctively : — "  sat  each  on  hit  throne." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Note  1.  Those  sort  of  favors  do  real  injury. 
They  have  been  playing  this  two  hours. 
These  kind  of  indulgences  soAen  and  injure  the  mind. 
He  saw  one  or  more  persons  enter  tl)c  garden. 
Note  2.  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  themselves. 


180  RULES  OP  SYNTAX. 

There  are  bodies,  each  of  which  are  so  small  as  to  be  invisible. 
Every  person,  whatever  their  station  may  be,  are  bound  by  the 
laws  of  morality  and  religion. 

Note.  3.  On  either  side  of  the  river  was  the  tr<*e  of  life. 
Nadab  and  Abihu  took  'either  of  them  his  censer. 

Rri^E  XX. 

Active- transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case ; 
as,  "Cesar  conquered  Pompei/ ;^^  "Columbus  dis- 
covered America  ;"  "  Truth  ennobles  Acr." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Ye  who  were  dead,  hath  he  quickened. 

Ye,  in  the  nominative  case,  is  erroneous,  because  it  is  the  object  of  the  ac- 
tion expressed  by  the  transithre  verb  "  hath  quickened ;"  auJ  therefore  it 
sh<iMl<i  be  you^  in  the  objective  case.  You  would  tlien  be  governed  by  "  hath 
<|u  '  Uciied,"  agreeably  to  Rule  20.     Active-irantitive  verbs  govern  the  objee- 

tivr  rate. 

Who  did  they  entertain  so  freely  ? 

They  who  opulence  has  made  proud,  and  who  luxury  has  cor- 
rupted, cannot  relish  the  simple  pleasures  of  nature. 

He  and  they  we  know,  but  who  are  ye  ? 

She  that  is  negligent,  reprove  sharply. 

He  invited  my  brother  and  I  to  pay  hirn  d  visit. 

Who  did  they  send  on  that  mission  ? 

They  who  he  has  most  injured,  he  had  the  greatest  reason  to 
love. 

RVI.E   XXT. 

The  verb  to  be  may  have  the  same  case  after  it  as 
before  it ;  as,  "  /  am  the  man ;"  "  I  beheve  it  to  have 
been  them;''  ''He  is  the  thief:' 

Note  1.  When  nouns  or  pnmouns  next  preceding  and  following  the  verb 
to  be,  signify  the  same  thing,  they  are  in  apposition,  and,  therefore,  in  the 
$ame  ca$e.     Rule  21  is  predicated  on  the  principle  contained  in  Rule  7. 

2.  The  verb  to  be  is  often  understood ;  as,  "  The  Lord  made  me  man ;  He 
made  him  what  he  was ;"  that  is,  "  The  Lord  made  me  to  be  man  ;  He  made 
him  to  be  that  which  he  was."  "  They  desired  me  to  call  them  brethren  ;* 
i.  e.  by  the  name  of  brethr6u.  "  They  named  him  John  ;"  i.  e.  by  the  name 
mf  John ;  or,  by  the  name  John :  putting  these  two  nouns  in  apposition. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

I  know  it  to  be  they. 

Improper,  because  it  is  in  the  objective  case  before  the  verb  "  to  be,"  and 
they  is  in  the  nominative  after;  consequently,  Rule  21  is  violated.  They  is 
in  apposition  with  it,  therefore  they  should  be  them,  in  the  objective  after  to 
be,  according  to  Rule  21.     (Repeat  the  Rule.)  • 


mvLis  or  SYNTAi^  187 

'^   Be  composed,  it  is  me. 

1  would  not  act  thus,  if  1  were  him. 
.    Well  may  you  be  afraid  ;  it  is  him,  inaeea. 

Who  do  you  fancy  him  to  to  be  ? 

Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ?     Whom  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

If  it  was  not  him,  who  do  you  imagine  it  to  have  been  ? 

He  supposed  it  was  me ;  but  you  knew  that  it  was  him. 

Rri.E  XXII. 

Active-intransitive  and  passive  verbs,  the  verb  to 
become,  and  other  neuter  verbs,  have  the  same  case 
after  them  as  before  them,  when  both  words  refer 
to,  and  signify,  the  same  thing ;  as,  "  Tom  struts  a 
soldier ;"  "  Will  sneaks  a  scrivener ;"  "  He  was  called 
Cesar ;"  "  The  gejieral  was  saluted  emperor ;"  *'  They 
have  bccomeybo/5." 

NoTK  1.  Active-intransitive  verbs  sometimes  assume  a  transitive  form, 
and  gc»veni  the  nlijective  case  ;  as.  "  To  dream  a  dream ;  To  run  a  race  ;  To 
%rnlk  tl...  /  „r<,  ;    fo  doitcc  the  chUd  ',    To  fly  the  kUe." 

^'  to  a  iisage  l«>o  common  iii  colloquial  style,  an  agent  not  liter 
r  one,  is  employed  as  the  nominative  to  a  passive  vrrh.  whicli 
I  to  be  followea  by  an  objective  case  without  tli-  '  v  of 

»Mt  a  preposition  :  thus,  "  Pitlicus  was  offered  .  by 

".     ^  ,        She  was  promised  them  (ihe  jeveU)  by  her  moi... .  .        I  wa» 

asked  a  qnestion,^^  It  would  be  better  sense,  and  more  agreeable  to  the 
idiom  of  our  language,  to  say,  "  A  large  turn  was  offered  to  Pitlicu* ;"  "Tkcy 
were  promised  (to)  her;'*  "  A  qucMtion  was  put  to  me.** 

3.  Some  passive  verbs  are  formed  by  using  the  participles  of  compotmd 
•ctive  verbs.  To  tmi/e,  to  wonder,  to  dream,  are  intransitive  verbs,  for  which 
reason  they  have  no  passive  voice ;  but,  to  smile  on,  to  vonder  at,  to  dream 
of,  are  compound  acUve-transitive  verbs,  and.  therefore,  admit  of  a  passive 
voice ;  as,  "  Ho  was  tmiled  on  by  fortmie ;  The  accident  is  not  to  be  von- 
dercd  at ;" 

"  There  are  more  things  in  heaven  and  earth,  Horatio, 
"  Than  are  dreamed  of  in  your  philosophy." 
BUI.E    XXill. 

A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  may  be  governed 
by  a  verb,  noun,  adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun ; 
as,  "  Cease  to  do  evil ;"  "  We  all  have  our  talent  to 
be  improved  ;"  "  She  is  eager  to  learn ;"  "  They  are 
preparing  to  go ;"  "  Let  him  do  it" 

Illustratiom.  The  nipDoaed  principle  of  government  referred  to  in  this 
mle,  may  Ikj  tl""=  •"■'-••^tf^.  In  the  sentence,  "  C«a«e  to  do  evil,"  the  pe- 
caliar  maum*r  /<«  is  introduced,  requires  or  compels  us  to  put  tho 

verb  da  m  the  ■■  ikmI  ;  and,  according  to  the  genius  of  our  lan^uagv, 

we  cannot  expi-esji  tlib  act  of  dotnf ,  when  thus  connected  with  eease,  m  any 
•tber  mood,  unless  we  changa  tha  oooatnietion  of  tha  lantanco.     Hence  wa 


t88  ^LKS   OF   SYNTAX. 

■ay,  that  ecase  goTerna  the  mood  (>f  the  verb  do.  Similar  remarkB  may  be 
applied  Ui  the  words  talent,  iager,  preparing,  and  him,  in  the  respective  ex- 
amples tiuder  the  rule.        0 

Many  respectable  fframmarians  refer  the  gnvemment  of  this  mood  inva- 
riably to  the  preposition  to  prefixed,  which  word  they  do  not.  of  course,  con- 
aider  a  part  of  the  verb.  Others  contend,  and  with  some  plausibility,  that 
this  mood  is  not  governed  by  any  particular  word.  If  we  rfje<:t  the  idea  of 
goveniment,  as  applied  to  the  verb  in  this  mood,  the  following  rule,  if  sub- 
stituted for  the  foregobg,  might,  perhaps,  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

RIJff«E. 

A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  refers  to  some  noun 
or  pronoun,  as  its  subject  or  actor. 

Illustration  of  the  examples  uiider  Rule  XXIIl.  "  To  do*'  refers  to 
ikou  understood  for  its  agent ;  "  to  be  improved"  refers  to  taUnt ;  "  to  learn,** 
to  the :  ••  to  go,"  to  thry;  and  "to  do."  refers  to  him.** 

NoTK  1.  The  Uliiditive  mood  absolute  stands  independent  of  the  rest  of 
the  sentence ;  as,  "  To  ronfe$M  tlie  truth,  I  was  in  fault." 

2.  The  infinitive  moot!  is  sometimes  governed  by  conjunctions  or  adverbs ; 
as,  "  An  object  so  high  ru  to  be  invisible ;"  "  H©  is  wise  enough  to  deceive;*' 
**  The  army  is  about  to  march.*' 

bi:t.e  XXIV. 

The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is  fre- 
quently put  as  the  nominative  case  to  a  verb,  or  the 
object  ot  an  active-transitive  verb ;  as,  "  To  play  is 
pleasant  ;**  "  Boys  love  to  play ;"  "  That  warm  cli- 
mates shorten  life,  is  reasonable  to  suppose ;"  "  He 
does  not  consider  how  near  he  approaches  to  his  end,'" 

Non.     To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  is  sometimes  properly  omit- 
ted;  as,  "  I  heard  him  tay  it ;"  instead  of,  "  to  $ay  it" 
RrL.E  XXV. 

The  verbs  which  follow  hid,  dare,  need,  make,  see, 
hear,  feel,  help,  let,  and  their  participles,  are  in  the 
infinitive  mood  without  the  sign  to  prefixed ;  as,  "  He 
bids  me  come ;"  '*"!  dare  engage ;"  "  Let  me  go ;" 
"Help  me  do  it;^  i.  e.  to  come,  to  go,  to  do  it,  &c. 
"  He  is  hearing  me  recite.^ 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Bid  him  to  come.    * 

He  durst  not  to  do  it  without  permission. 

Hear  him  to  read  his  lesson. 

It  is  the  difference  in  their  conduct,  which  makes  m  to  ap- 
prove the  one,  and  to  reject  the  other. 

It  is  better  live  on  a  little,  than  outlive  a  great  deal. 

I  wish  him  not  wrestle  with  his  happiness. 


RULES   OP  811CTAX.  189 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs 
have  from  which  they  are  derived;  as,  "I  saw  the 
tutor  instructing  his  pupils.''* 

NuTr.  The  preaent  participle  with  the  definite  article  the  before  it,  be- 
comes a  noun,  and  mtmt  have  the  preposition  of  after  it.  The  and  of  miint 
both  be  used,  or  both  be  omitte<l ;  as,  **  By  the  observing  of  truth,  you  will 
command  respect ;"  or,  *'  By  obfierving  trutli,"  &c. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Note.  We  cannot  be  wise  and  good  without  the  talcing  pains 
for  it. 

The  changing  times  and  seasons,  the  removing  and  setting  up 
kincfs,  belong  to  Providence  alone. 

These  are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  observing  of  which  you 
may  avoid  mistakes. 

uvi,m  xxYii. 

The  present  participle  refers  to  some  noun  or 
pronoun  denoting  the  subject  or  actor ;  as,  "  I  see  a 
boy  running.** 

RI7I.K   XXTIII. 

The  perfect  participle  belongs,  like  an  adjective, 
to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood ; 
as,  "  I  saw  the  hoy  abused.** 

Note  1.  Participles  of  neater  verbs  have  the  same  case  after  them  as  be- 
fore them  ;  as,  "  Poniius  Pilate  being  Governor  of  Judea,  and  Herod  being 
TetrarcK'  &c. 

2.  A  participle  with  its  adjuncts,  may  sometimes  be  considered  as  a  sub- 
■tantive  or  p[irtitnpial  phrase,  which  phrase  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or 
tlie  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition ;  as,  "  Taking  from  another  irithout  hi* 
knotcledf^e  or  assent,  is  called  stealing;  He  stutiietf  to  avoid  expressing  himt- 
self  too  severely  ;  I  cannot  foil  of  having  monty,  Slc.  ;  By  promising  much 
and  performing  but  little,  we  become  despicable." 

3  A.,  .»„.  ..Mrfect  jiartlciple  and  the  imperfect  tense  of  irregular  verbs,  are 
■on  rent  ui  their  fonn,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  be  not  indis- 

crii!  -•<!.     It  is  frequently  said,  '  He  begim,' for  *  he  began;'  *  He 

nin.'  lur  he  ran;'  'He  come,*  for  'he  came;'  the  participles  being  here 
'!-.«l  instead  of  the  imperfect  tense;  and  much  more  frequently  is  the  im« 
iH-ifect  tense  employed  instead  of  the  participle;  as, '  I  had  wrote,*  for  *  1 
nad  written  ;*  '  I  was  chose,'  for  '  I  was  chosen  ;'  '  I  have  eat,'  for  '  I  have 
eaten.'  •  He  would  have  spoke ;' — spoken.  *  He  overrun  his  guide  -'—over 
ran.    *  The  Mm  had  roM 


FALSE  SYNTAX. 
I  seen  him.     I  have  saw  many  a  one. 

Seen  is  improper,  the  perfect  participle  being  used  inatead  of  the  imperfec 
tense  of  the  verb.     It  oagfat  to  b«  **  I  $am  him,"  aeourding  to  Note  3.     //av« 


Mi  wmum  wr  trvcjx. 

•m  tfmn,  -  f  ki»v  «M  aMgr »«»/' Kfiti  3L 

MpCf  3.  He  doM  ■»  BD  Imtv,  iarlhtA  WireCe  my  letter  befen 
■0  come  bone. 

IM  Ml  (Wt  leiifcifiM.  bdU  nj  coofm,  be  woolrl  bare  went 


Tbe  tna  bad  eiready  eioee,  wktm  I  bepni  my  pmrny. 
8im  tba  wwfc  ii  bcgan^  ii  mmt  be  proeecmcd. 
Tbe  FfMdb  lengaiy  if  ipoke  in  erery  fCste  in  Europe. 
He  wiiiee  se  fbe  beeC  aolbofB  woald  beve  wroCe,  bed  they  v. 

Bn.K  xxix«  «■ 

Adf ctbs  wwlif)  TeriM,  participles,  adjectiTes,  and 
other  adiem ;  as,  ^  A  verj  good  pen  writet  extreme- 
ly  wtUf  ^  Bjr  firtNj^  Umperaieiifj'"  6cc, 

ibeYOTb;a^^iie 


Hb«i  ii  «epieaMe  mmhmt,  a*  adv«rl 

fb*  look*  aUdlf  oe  biin ;  He  feeb 

If  dMvwbloitfCttbe 


MtMf  Tb*  biy  «Mlb  [if]  smtti:  The  ield*  look  [«rO 
frwtm  :  Tb*  afplM  liito  [«r»]  wvr ;  Tb*  «M  Motm  (Ifl/rM*," 

S.  If  iteaC  fBrkdrffefar  to  eMiy  Ae  advtnrb*  Arrc,  llcrv,  and  «JUr#> 
▼wU  iijwfciif  ■  idle,  imiiii  af  db>  edtwbi  *ia<r,  a«l<r,  ■*tfUr :  tl 
H«caM9W«tA«akrtbBalilyr  "Tbey  rada a«^ (^UflUrl  in  two  boo 
^'^^  (^^frjwfl  W^r     Bm  »fcariSynyia,  tbeaa  eoMCreet. 


fcfc»heiJ^r  iliiliitlit  *'Tba  ■— i  ifil  wga  af  Ta.feraad  e  Amtm^M 
•iCrrCi»«M]lfcmri|^Mbol^aMai9*  1 

S.  Aa  d>a  adWtba  iUacr,  flcacr.  mmlwk^me*,  Klafelly  mpiilj  iba  phea  afj 


lo  ba  a  inlaona  in  aaaployBW 
Fr^mwkmee  it  feflovra;^  '*H«  eiin9 
frmm  O^met  mttm  mmfmrnf."     Better,  -wkenct  il  Mbrnv^   "Ha  car 
iUme^r    Tba  fcihmiag  ffceaw  ere  aho  aagaytfawabia ;  '^  Tha  ikem  wr 
fryf*  "TbeaiawrvgHBaM/'  "Adk  bm  a<«irr  to  oncb  ^cmrjf*  *«Cbarni 


baa<»€raa  w<adl/.*    BaOar, ''TbeMhimy  </i3Ur«hi^  or^gH^;**  "IVt 


9re€t4Umg  mnmmtad.  -7*  **  A«r  i 

FALSE  SYNTAX- 
NtiU  1.  il  canoot  be  impertineDC  or  ridicuknis  chereibre  tD 


He  ir«f  ^Ummn^  not  oAeo,  beceoee  he  wee  rein. 

Tbcee  ibmfi  rfmild  be  nerer  eeparmtad. 

We  mtf  he|p^/  Uw,  tbeofb  onr  poemerione  ere  eman. 


m^ 


Two  aeyUn's  JchUcw  ose  sBodwr,  udl  are  |<mk 
enlf  cquiTmlent  to  an  aJbrmmtrre ;  «s»  **  Such  thu^ 
are  mot  mmcaaaaotki*  L  e.  tliej  «re 

FALSE  SITrrAX 
I M  Bot  aM  aDMly  thwb.    KollMrt^  arcw  aftcfet  Iwr* 

t  W  MdMig  ■ioi<»  InsnifittAt  Ami  inudkf « 
ii«i|ilim  B  act »  fe^Slilt  is  »fiwyV. 
mn.«xxxt. 
PreposilioBs  gOTem  the  olijectrre  case;  es»  ^  He 
went  Jinm  Utica  Id  Rome^  wA  tlioi  passed  Armuti 
RedfiekL* 

FALSB  SYNTAX. 
Each  is  >cgoii1>M8  ftr  Iwartf. 

Wkodid7«Mgovillit 


Hame^  and  mmbs  signifyuif  JTiliuii  time  «iWi^ 
k9w  J^r,  ^c.  are  genmlly  gOTtamed  by  a  prepotM- 
tioD  wMtnioMi;  as>  ^TWlmae  ran  a  mile  ;**  ^  He 
came  tmm  last  Jun^  ;*  •*  My  fiieiHl  Imxi  four  ftmwt 
at  college  ;^  that  is»  na  ikrm^  tiU  ifNici  ^a  mile ; 
or,  nui  oiYT  c  yet  caUiil  a  mile ;  la  hia  ' 
last  June;  </4«rii^  four  joai8»  &c. 

^  frMMMMM;  Mk  *>Qh«  [«»]  mm %hmki  Oat  rfar] liiM •hmb^**^'* 
S.   fWor— HKJ^  Wfw^<MfMli4  t»  W  <MiiirH>iJI  lan  «>  —i  will; 


M»o|to»«k[«M»)MiW«iNr{«biii«iiMk»(to)M^*»    pawn il 


192  tULBS   OP   SYNTAX. 

3.  Noun*  sigtiifyin?  extotiMOD,  duration,  qnantity,  quality,  or  valae,  ar« 
n«ed  wi'     ,'  .  <ril ;  as,  "  The  Onio  is  one  thousand  miles  long; 

She  is  t.  ;  is  worth  ten  dollars.*'     TbesQ.  are  sometimes 

cousidc:^^ ^^  ^ix^e  163. 

BULB  XXXIII. 

Conjunctions  connect  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the 
iiine  case ;  as,  "  The  master  taught  her  and  me  to 
write ;"  "  He  and  she  are  associates.^ 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
My  brother  and  him  are  gramniarians. 
You  and  me  enjoy  great*  privileges. 

Him  and  I  went  to  the  city  in  company ;  but  John  and  him 
returned  without  me. 

Between  you  and  I  there  is  a  great  disparity  of  years. 

RVE.B    XXXIV. 

Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs  of  like 
moods  and  tenses;  as,  "If  thou  sincerely  desire, 
and  earnestly  pursue  virtue,  she  will  assuredly  be 
found  by  thee,  and  prove  a  rich  reward." 

NoTS  1.  When  different  moods  and  tcnsoa  are  connected  by  coiyunctions, 
the  nominative  knust  be  repeated ;  as,  "  He  may  retvm,  but  he  inU  not  tarry  V 

2.  Conjunctions  impIyiBg  contingency  or  doubt,  require  the  subjunctive 
mood  after  tliem  ;  as,  '*  TjThe  study^  he  will  improve."  See  pages  135,  145, 
and  155. 

3.  The  conjunctions  if,  though,  unUsSy  except,  vhstktr,  and  Usi,  generally 
require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them. 

4.  Coujunctious  of  a  positive  and  absolute  nature,  implying  no  doubt,  re- 
quire the  indicative  mood  ;  as,  '*  A*  virtue  advtmees,  to  vice  recedes^ 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Did  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  entreated  me  to  forgive  him  ? 
Professing  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  discovers  a  base  mind. 
Note  1.  He  has  gone  home,  but  may  return. 
The  attorney  executed  the  deed,  but  will  write  no  more. 
Note  2.  I  shall  walk  to-day,  unless  it  rains. 
If  he  acquires  riches,  they  will  corrupt  his  mind. 

BlJIiE  XXXV. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  following  the  conjunction 
tnariy  as,  or  but,  is  nominative  to  a  verk,  or  governed 
by  a  verb  or  preposition,  expressed  or  understood ; 
as,  "  Thou  art  wiser  than  I  [am."]  "  I  saw  nobody 
but  [I  saw]  him." 

NoTK  1.  The  conjunction  as,  when  it  is  connected  with  such,  many,  or 
9ttme.  is  sometimes,  though  erroneously,  called  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  "  I  **t 


SYNTAX  OP  TH£  TENSES.  IDS 

tufh  a«  presume  to  adviae  others/'  &c. ;   that  ia,  Let  tkem  who,  Sec     8«e 
j«j:e  116. 

2.  An  t>lli|>rii!i,  or  oiuiMiou  of  some  words,  is  freqtieDtly  admitted,  which 
tniist  be  Hupplietl  iu  the  mind  in  order  to  parse  gruiuiimiit-ally  ;  na,  "  Wo  is 
me :"  that  is,  to  me ;  "  To  sleep  all  uight;''  i.  e.  Ikrougk  all  the  night;  "  He 
has  gone  a  journey  ;"  i.  e.  <m  a  journey ;  "  They  walkeKl  a  league ;  i«  e«  ovf 
m  tpace  ealied  a  lea^e. 

3.  When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the  sense,  or  weaken  its 
force,  they  must  be  expressed. 

4.  In  the  use  of  prepositions,  and  words  that  relate  to  each  other,  we  should 
pay  particular  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  words  or  sentences  which  they 
connect :  all  tlie  parts  of  a  sentence  should  corres{>oud  to  each  other,  and  a 
regular  and  clear  construction  throughout  should  be  carefully  preserved. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
They  are  much  greater  gainers  than  me. 
They  know  how  to  write  as  well  as  him ;  but  he  is  a  better 
grammarian  than  them. 

They  were  all  well  but  him. 

None  were  rewarded  but  him  and  me. 

Jesus  sought  none  but  they  who  had  gone  astray. 

REMARKS  ON  THE  TENSES. 

1.  In  the  use  of  verbs,  and  other  words  and  phrases  which,  in 
point  of  time.,  relate  to  each  other,  a  due  regard  to  that  relation  . 
should  be  observed. 

Instead  of  saying.  "  The  Lord  hath  given,  and  the  Lord  heUk  taken  away;" 
we  should  say,  "  The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lonl  {f.a(k  taken  away."  Instead 
of,  "  I  remem/ter  the  family  more  than  twenty  years  ;"  it  should  be,  "  I  have 
remembered  the  family  more  thsm  twenty  years." 

2.  The  best  rule  that  can  be  given  for  the  management  of  the 
tenses,  and  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in  point  of  time,  relate 
to  each  other,  is  this  very  general  one ;  Observe  what  the  sense 
necessarily  requires. 

To  say,  "  I  have  \'isited  Washington  last  summer ;    I  have  teen  the  work 
more  than  a  month  ago,"  is  not  good  tenae.     The  constructions  shoii"  '  '. 
"  I  vinted  Washini;fon,  Sir.;  I  aaic  the  work,  &c."     "  This  mode  of  ■ 
sion  has  been  formerly  much  admirtnl :" — "tea*  formerly  much  adin.:-„. 
♦*  If  I  had  have  been  there ;"  "  If  I  had  have  seen  him ;"  "  Had  yoa  ikov* 
known  him."  are  solecisms  too  gross  to  need  correction.     We  can  aav,  I  kav 
Im-<-ii,  I  ft.td  hccti ;  but  what  sort  of  a  tenite  is,  had  have  been  f     To  place  had 
hfi'orv  til."  lirftrtive  verb  ought,  is  an  error  equally  gross  and  illiterate  : — ^*kad 
oii^iit.  Kadni  ouyht."     This  is  as  low  a  \'ulgarism  as  the  use  of  tkeim,  kern, 
uikI  kizzen,  tether,  furder,  baynt,  this  ere,  I  teed  it,  I  teWd  him. 

3.  When  we  refer  to  a  past  action  or  event,  and  no  part  of  tha; 
time  in  which  it  took  place  ;  remains,  the  imperfect  tense  should 
be  used  ;  but  if  there  is  still  remaining  some  portion  of  the  time 
in  which  we  declare  that  the  thing  has  been  done,  the  perfec 
'ense  should  be  employed. 

"fhnat  we  aay.  "  Philoaopbert  made  groat  discoveries  iu  tha  U«t  oentnry  ;* 

17 


194  SrNTlX    OF  THE   TEPfSES. 

••  He  was  much  afllicted  last  year ;"  but  when  we  refer  to  the  present  cen- 
tury, year,  weelt.  day,  &•.  we  ought  to  use  the  perfect  tense ;  as,  "  Philoso- 
phers  have  made  great  discoveries  in  the  present  century ;"  "  He  hat  hem 
much  attiictt'd  this  year ;"  "  I  have  read  the  president's  message  this  week  ; 
"  We  have  heard  important  news  this  morning ;"  because  these  events  ocxu 
red  in  this  centnry,  this  year,  this  wtfek.  and  to^lay,  and  still  there  remains 
A  part  of  this  century,  year,  week,  and  day,  of  which  I  speak. 

In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  wherever  the  action  is  con- 
nectetl  with  the  pre.nent  time,  by  the  actual  existence  either  c€  Ni  tuthor 
of  the  work,  though  it  mar  have  been  performed  many  centuries  ago ;  but 
if  neither  the  author  nor  toe  work  now  remains,  the  perfect  tense  ought  not 
to  be  employed.  Speakmg  of  priests  in  general,  we  may  say,  ••  They  have, 
in  all  a^es,  claimed  great  powers  ;'*  because  the  general  order  of  the  priest- 
hood still  exists ;  but  we  camiot  properly  ny,  "  The  Druid  priests  hav 
claimed  great  fiowers ;"  because  that  order  is  now  extinct.  We  ought,*lher©. 
fore,  to  say,  "  The  Druid  priesU  claimed  ereat  powers." 

Ttie  following  example*  may  serve  still  farther  to  illustrate  the  proper  use 
and  application  of  the  tenses.  "  My  brother  lias  recently  been  to  Philadel- 
phia.''  It  shoiiki  be,  "  weu  recently  at  Philadelphia ;"  because  the  adverb 
recently  refers  to  a  time  completely  past,  without  any  allusion  to  the  present 
time.  **  Charles  is  grown  coosiderably  since  I  have  seen  him  the  last  time." 
Corrected,  "  Charles  kma  grown,  since  I  $aw  him,"  &c.  ♦•  Payment  was  at 
length  made,  but  no  reason  asaiened  for  its  beius  so  long  postponed."  Cor- 
rected, "  for  its  A^ivtM^  been  so  long  poAponed.'  "  Ttey  were  arrived  an 
hour  before  we  reached  the  city :" — •*  They  had  arrived." 

**  The  workmen  w^ill  complete  the  building  at  the  lime  I  take  possession 
of  it"  It  should  be,  "  will  have  eowtpUted  the  ouilding,"  &c.  "  This  curious 
piece  of  workmanship  was  preaerved,  mmI  diown  to  stnngers  for  more  than 
Wty  years  past :" — ^**  hat  been  preserved,  and  been  shown  to  strangers,"  &c. 
**  I  had  rather  write  than  beg :  — "  I  w<mld  rather  write  than  beg." 

'*  On  the  morrow,  liec^nse  he  would  have  known  the  certainty  whereof 
Paul  was  accnsed  of  the  Jews,  be  loosed  him  from  his  bauds."  It  ought  to 
be,  ** because  he  wtmld  know;  or,  being  willing  to  know,"  &c.  " The  blind 
man  said,  *  Lord,  that  I  might  receive  my  sight ;'  "  **  If  by  any  means  I  might 
attain  untp  the  resurrection  of  the  deail."  In  both  these  examples,  may 
would  l>e  preferable  to  might.  "  I  feared  that  I  should  have  lost  the  parcel, 
before  I  arrived  :" — "  that  I  should  lose."  **  It  would  have  afforded  me  no 
satis&cdon,  if  I  could  perform  it."  It  ought  to  be,  "  if  I  could  have  perform- 
ed it ;"  or,  "  It  would  afford  me  no  satis^tion,  if  I  cotdd  perform  it."  "  This  , 
dedicati  m  may  serve  f«»r  almoi^t  any  book  that  has,  is,  or  shall  be  published:* 
— "  that  has  been,  or  trill  be  published.*^ 

4.  In  order  to  employ  the  two  tenses  of  the  infinitive  mood 
with  propriety,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  meaning 
of  what  we  e.vpress. 

Verbs  expressive  of  hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  ought 
to  be  followed  by  the  present  tense  of  the  Infinitive  mood. 

"  Last  week  I  intended  to  have  written,''^  is  improper.  The  intention  of 
writing  was  then  present  with  me ;  and,  therefore,  the  construction  shoulJ 
be,  "  I  intended  to  write."  The  following  examples  are  also  inaccurate  ;  ''  \ 
foimd  him  better  than  I  expected  to  have  found  him ;"  "  My  purpose  was 
after  spendingr  ten  months  more  in  commerce,  to  have  vithdrawn  my  wealtlr 
to  another  country.  They  should  be,  "*  expected  to  find  him  ;"  **  to  withdram 
my  wealth." 

"  This  is  a  book  which  proves  itself  »  "  bt>  written  by  the  person  wht>- 


PALSB   SYNTAX.  10 

name  it  }>ear»."  It  might  to  be  "  which  nroves  it«*lf  to  have  btfH  writtm,"  S:' 
"  Ti)  set!  him  would  huve  affordtnl  me  plea.sure  all  my  life."  CorrtH-tecl,  "  7  < 
knre  $een  him  ;"  or.  *•  To  $ee  him  would  afford  me  pleasure,"  &c*.  **  Tin.' 
arguments  were  sufficient  to  have  witi.sfieti  all  who  heard  them  :" — "  weu^ 
BiiiTicieiit /(7  aatiaf^"  **  Hist/>ry  jwiinters  wouhl  have  found  it  dithcult  to  have 
uiventetl  such  a  apecies  of  beings :" — '*  to  invent  such  a  sju'cies." 

5.  General  and  immutable  trutiis  ought  to  be  expressed  in  the 
present  tense. 

Instead  of  saying,  "  He  did  not  know  that  eight  and  twenty  vere  eqnal  to 
twenty  and  ei"ht;"  "The  preacher  said  very  audibly,  that  whatever  ua* 
useful,  itna  good ;"  "  My  opponent  would  not  believe,  that  virtue  loat  always 
advantageous;"  The  constructions  should  be,  "  are  equal  to  twenty  ;'* 
"  whatever  is  useful,  is  goixi  ;"  **  virtue  is  always  advantageous." 

EXAMPLES  IN  FALSE  SYNTAX  PROMISCUOUSLY 
ARRANCiED. 

We  adore  the  Divine  Being,  he  who  is  from  eternity  to  eternity. 

On  these  causes  depend  all  the  happiness  or  misery  which 
exist  among  men. 

The  enemies  who  we  have  most  to  fear,  are  those  of  our  own 
hearts. 

Is  it  me  or  him  who  you  requested  to  go  ? 

Though  great  has  been  his  disobedience  and  his  folly,  yet  if  he 
sincerely  acknowledges  his  misconduct,  he  shall  be  forgiven. 

There  were,;  in  the  metropolis,  much  to  amuse  them. 

By  exercising  of  our  memories,  they  are  improved. 

The  property  of  my  friend,  I  mean  his  books  and  furniture, 
were  wholly  consumed. 

Affluence  might  give  us  respect  in  the  eyes  of  the  vulgar,  but 
will  not  recommend  us  to  the  wise  and  good. 

The  cares  of  this  world,  they  often  choke  the  growth  of  virtue. 

They  that  honor  me,  I  will  honor ;  and  them  that  despise  me, 
shall  be  lightly  esteemed.        X^ 

I  intended  to  have  called  last  week,  but  could  not. 

The  fields  look  freshly  and  gayly  since  the  rain. 

The  book  is  printed  very  neat,  and  on  fine  wove  paper. 

I  have  recently  been  in  Washington,  where  I  have  seen  Gren. 
Andrew  Jackson,  he  who  is  now  president. 

Take  the  two  first,  and,  if  you  please,  the  three  last. 

The  Chinese  wall  is  thirty  foot  high. 

It  is  an  union  supported  by  an  hypothesis,  merely. 

I  have  saw  him  who  you  wrote  to ;  and  he  would  have  came 
back  with  me,  if  he  could. 

Not  one  in  fifty  of  those  who  call  themselves  deists,  understand 
the  nature  of  the  religion  which  they  reject. 

If  thou  studiest  djligently,  thou  will  become  learned. 

Education  is  not  attended  to  propo/ly  in  Spain. 


198  PALSE    SYNTAX. 

He  know'd  it  was  his  duty  ;  and  he  ought,  therefo;^,  to  do  it. 

He  has  little  more  of  the  great  man  besides  the  title. 

Richard  acted  very  independent  on  the  occasion. 

We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

The  time  of  my  friend  entering  on  business,  soon  arrived. 

His  speech  is  the  most  perfect  specimen  I  ever  saw. 

Calumny  and  detraction  are  sparks  which,  if  you  do  not  blow 
they  will  go  out  of  themselves. 

Those  two  authors  have  each  of  them  their  merit. 
Reasons  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 
Lies  in  three  words,  health,  peace,  and  competence. 

A  great  mass  of  rocks  thrown  together  by  the  hand  of  nature 

ith  wildness  and  confusion,  strike  the  mind  with  more  grandeur, 
than  if  they  were  adjusted  to  one  another  with  the  accuratest 
symmetry. 

A  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder. 

The  side  A,  with  the  sides  B  and  C,  compose  the  triangle. 

If  some  persons  opportunities  were  never  so  favorable,  they 
would  be  too  indolent  to  improve. 

It  is  reported  that  the  governor  will  come  here  to-morrow. 

Beauty  and  innocence  should  be  never  separated. 

Extravagance  and  folly  may  reduce  you  to  a  situation  where 
you  will  have  much  to  fear  and  little  to  hope. 

Not  one  in  fifty  of  our  modem  infidels  are  thoroughly  versed 
in  their  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures. 

Virtue  and  mutual  confidence  is  the  soul  of  friendship.  Where 
these  are  wanting,  disgust  or  hatred  often  follow  little  differences. 

An  army  present  a  painful  sight  to  a  feeling  mind. 

To  do  good  to  them  that  hate  us,  and,  on  no  occasion,  to  seek 
revenge,  is  the  duty  of  a  christian. 

The  polite,  accomplished  libertine,  is  but  miserable  amidst  all 
his  pleasures :  the  rude  inhabitant  of  Lapland  is  happier  than  him. 

There  are  principles  in  man,  which  ever  have,  and  ever  will, 
incline  him  to  offend. 

This  is  one  of  the  duties  which  requires  great  circumspection. 

They  that  honor  me,  them  will  I  honor. 

Every  church  and  sect  have  opinions  peculiar  to  themselves. 

Pericles  gained  such  an  ascendant  over  the  minds  of  the  Athe- 
nians, that  he  might  be  said  to  attain  a  monarchical  power  in 
I^Athens. 

^    Thou,  Lord,  who  hath  permitted  aflliction  to  come  upon  us,  shall 
deliver  us  from  it  in  due  time. 

That  writer  has  given  us  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which 
christiapity  has  formerly  been  propagated  among  the  heathens. 


FALSB    SYNTAX.  197 

Though  the  measure  be  mysterious,  it  is  not  unworthy  of  your 
attention. 

In  his  conduct  was  treachery,  and  in  his  words,  faithlen 
professions. 

After  I  visited  Europe,  I  returned  to  America, 

I  have  not,  nor  shall  not,  consent  to  a  proposal  so  unjust. 

I  had  intended  yesterday  to  have  walked  out,  but  I  have  Deen 
again  disappointed. 

Five  and  eight  makes  thirteen  ;  five  from  eight  leaves  three. 

If  he  goes  to  Saratoga  next  week,  it  will  make  eight  times  that 
he  has  visited  that  renowned  watering  place. 

I  could  not  convince  him,  that  a  forgiving  disposition  was 
nobler  than  a  revengeful  one.  I  consider  the  first,  one  of  the 
brightest  virtues  that  ever  was  or  can  be  possessed  by  man. 

The  college  consists  of  one  great,  and  several  smaller  edifices. 

He  would  not  believe,  that  honesty  was  the  best  policy. 

The  edifice  was  erected  sooner  than  I  expected  it  to  have  been. 

Surely,  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of 
my  life  ;  and  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever. 

If  a  man  have  a  hundred  sheep,  and  one  of  them  be  gone 
astray,  doth  he  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine,  &c.  ? 

He  might  have  completed  his  task  sooner,  but  he  could  not  do 
it  better. 

The  most  ignorant  and  the  most  savage  tribes  of  men,  when 
they  have  looked  'round  on  the  earth,  and  on  the  heavens,  could 
not  avoid  ascribing  their  origin  to  some  invisible,  designing  cause, 
and  felt  a  propensity  to  adore  their  Creator. 


CRITICAI^  NOTES  AND  OB8ERTATIONS. 

Obsirtatio!*  1.  The  fullowing  absurd  phraae*  ao  common  in  the  sacred 
desk  and  el«ewliere,  iihould  be  carefully  avoided  by  all  who  rejrjinl  common 
■(•nse : — "  Sing  the  litofimt  and  three  last  verses."  Just  as  if  there  could  be 
more  than  one  first  and  one  lasL  There  may  be  n  first  two,  a  second  tiro.  Sic. ; 
a  fimt  three,  a  second  three,  a  lost  three.  "  Withm  the  ttpo  /aji/lnenturies  ;'* 
"  The  second  syllable  of  the  three  first  wonls ;"  "  The  three  first  of  these 
onhoepisis  have  no  rule  by  \vhi<rh  their  pronimciation  is  repulate<I :" — "  the 
Inst  /if»  centuries;"  "  the  _/lr«/  three  words;"  "  the  _/Srj/  tkret  of  these  or 
thoepista."* 

2.  Adjective*  should  not  be  used  to  express  the  manner  of  action.  '•  The 
higher  the  river,  the  ttrijter  it  flows ;"  **  James  leanis  easier  than  Juliet ;  he 
■ees  deeper  into  the  millKtrine  than  she :"— "  the  more  snnftly  it  flows ;" 
•*  learns  more  easity ;  farther  into  the  millstone."  "  He  conducted  the  boldeU 
of  any :" — "  the  most  boldly." 

3.  More  reqairet  than  after  it.  The  following  Mntence*  are  therefore  im 
proper :   "  He  was  more  beloved,  bat  not  so  macb  admired,  a»  Ciuthio ; ' 

17* 


198  CRITICAL    REMARKS. 

**  Richard  is  more  active,  but  not  to  stadious,  om  bis  companion."  The  1egiti> 
mate  mfwle  of  Mipplving  the  ellipses  in  these  constructions,  will  show  their 
^TOM  iinprtjpriet^:  tnoa,  "  He  was  more  beloved  om  Cinthio  ;"  *'  Richard  ia 
more  active  a*  his  companion,"  Sue. 

4.  Adverbs,  as  illustrated  on  page  85,  are  generally  subMtUutet  fur  t^o  or 
more  words  belonging  to  other  parts  of  speech.  "  Will  you  accompany  me 
to  Kurope  next  summer  ?"  *'  y«»."  "  Do  you  believe  that  iho  voyage  will 
restore  your  health  7"  "  JVb."  In  these  examples,  the  adverbs  yet  and  no, 
are  snbstitutcs  for  whole  sentences,  and,  therefore,  do  not  qualify  any  words 
understood.  Yes,  in  this  instance,  literally  means,  "  I  trill  accompany  you  to 
Europe  next  nmmer ;"  and  mo,  **  I  do  not  believe  that  the  voyage  will  regtor« 
my  keaUk."     Manr  other  adverbs  are  oAen  employed  in  a  simiUr  manner. 

"  Firstly,**  is  often  imprt>perly  used  instead  of  the  adverb^r»i ;  "  a  good 
deal**  instead  of,  muck,  or,  a  great  deal. 

5.  A  nice  distinction  should  be  observed  m  the  use  of  t%et%  and  so.  The 
former  may  bo  employed  in  expreasiug  quality ;  the  latter,  in  expressins:  a 
degree  of  the  qnality ;  as,  "Suck  a  temper  is  aeldom  found;"  **  So  bad  a 
temper  is  seldom  found."  In  the  following  examples,  to  should  be  used  in- 
stead of  tuck  :  *'  He  is  tuck  an  extravagant  young  man,  that  I  cannot  aaso* 
ciate  with  him  ;"  "  I  never  before  saw  turk  large  trees." 

The  affected  tise  of  cardinal,  instead  of  oniuud  numbers,  ought  not  to  be 
imitated.  "On  page  forty-Jive;**  "Look  at  page  nineteen;**-— forty-ffthj 
nineteenth. 

6.  In  the  choice  and  application  of  prepositions,  particular  regard  should 
be  paid  to  their  meaning  as  established  by  the  idiom  of  our  language  and  the 
best  usage.  "  In  my  proceedings,  I  have  been  actuated  from  Uie  conviction, 
that  I  waa  supporting  a  righteous  cause ;"  "  He  should  have  profited  fi-om 
those  golden  precepts;"  "It  is  connected  to  John  with  the  conjunction 
and;**  "  Aware  that  there  is.  in  the  minds  of  many,  a  strong  predilection  in 

"favor  of  established  usages ;"  "  He  was  made  much  on  at  Argos ;"  "  The^ 
are  resolved  of  going ;"  "  The  rain  has  been  falling  of  ^  long  time ;"  "  It  is 
a  work  deserving  of  encouragement."  These  examples  may  be  corrected 
thus,  "  actuated  by  the  con>'iction ;"  "  by  tiiose  golden  precepts ;"  "  by  the 
conjimction  and  ;"  "  predilection  for;**  "  much  of  at  Argos;"  "<m  going;" 
••  falling  a  long  time ;"  "  deserving  encouragement." 

7.  The  preposition  to  is  used  before  nouns  of  place,  where  tney  follow 
verbs  or  participles  of  motion ;  as,  "  I  went  to  Washington."  But  at  is  em- 
ployed after  the  verb  to  be ;  as,  "  I  have  been  at  Washington  ;"  "He  has 
been  to  New  York,  to  home,"  &c.  are  improper.  The  preposition  t«  is  set 
before  countries,  cities,  and  large  towns ;  "  He  lives  in  France,  in  London, 
in  Philadelphia,  in  Rochester."  But  before  single  houses,  and  cities  and 
villai^es  which  are  in  distant  countries,  al  is  commonly  used ;  as,  "  He  lives 
at  Park-place  ;"  "  She  resides  at  Vincennes."  People  in  the  northern  states 
may  say,  "  They  live  in  New  Orleans,  or,  at  New  Orleans." 

8.  Passive  agents  to  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  should  not  be  employed 
as  active  agents.  The  following  are  solecisms :  "  This  house  to  let ;"  "  Horses 
and  carriages  ta  let ;"  "  Congress  has  much  business  to  perform  this  session ;' 
because  the  agents,  house,  horses  and  carriages,  and  business,  which  are 
really  passive,  are,  according  to  these  constructions,  rendered  as  active.  The 
expressions  should  be,  "  This  house  to  be  let;"  "  Horses  and  carriages  to  be 
let ;"  "  much  business  to  be  performed.** 

9.  Ambiguitt. — "  Nothing  is  more  to  be  desired  than  wisdom."  Not  lite- 
rally correct,  for  wisdom  is  certainly  more  to  be  desired  than  nothing ;  but, 
as  a  figurative  expression,  it  is  well  established  and  unexceptionable, 

"  A  crow  is  a  large  black  bird  :" — a  large,  black — bird. 

**  I  saw  a  horse — fly  through  the  window :" — I  saw  a  horsefly 


COR^RCTIONS    IN   OBTHOGKAPHT. 


IM 


**!  «w  a  shin  gliding  under  full  mil  throagh  a  spy  glaw.**  I  Mw,  through 
ft  wpy  glaM,  ft  snip  gliding  uudt>r  full  sail. 

•*  On©  niay  see  how  the.  world  goes  with  half  an  eye."  One  may  tee  with 
half  an  eye,  how  the  world  goes. 

**  A  great  stuae,  that  I  hapi>eued  to  find,  aAer  a  lonf  search,  by  the  seft 
«hore,  served  m»i  fi  >r  an  anchor."  This  arrangement  of  tne  members  and  cir- 
cuniiitauc««  of  this  sentence,  confines  the  8{)eiiker's  »earck  to  tlie  tea  shore; 
whereas,  he  meant,  "  A  large  stone,  tchich,  after  a  long  search,  I  happened 
tojiud  by  the  sea  shore,  served  me  for  an  anchor." 

"  I  shall  only  notice  those  called  personal  pronouns."  I  shall  notice  omlf 
tiioiie  called  (lentonal  pronouns. 

10.  Tautoloot. — Avoi«l  words  which  add  nothing  to  the  sense ;  such  aa^ 
"  Noic  extant, /Vfc  gratis,  */ofrfno|>e,  cold  snow,  a  hot  sun,  tk.flotnng  stream,  ft 
duil  bUH*khead,  tcise  sages."    "  I  am  just  going  to  go  there  ;"  I  am  about  to  go. 

11.  Absurditiks  and  Improprietiks. — "lean  learn  him  many  things.'* 
It  ought  to  be,  "  I  can  teach  him."  To  learn,  is  to  acquire  or  receive  iiubi> 
mat  ion  ;  to  teach,  means  to  communicate  it. 

"  I  don't  think  it  is  so."     You  do  think,  that  it  is  m>/-80. 

Ever,  alttays.  "  I  have  ever  been  of  this  mind."  I  have  alftmya  been. 
Ever  and  always  are  not  synon^inous.  Ever  refers  to  one  indefinite  period 
of  time ;  aj«,  "  If  he  ever  become  rich  :"  alvays  means  at  all  times. 

Ejcchmc,  pardon.  The  former  signifies  to  relitase  from  an  obligation  which 
refers  to  the  future ;  the  latter,  to  forgive  a  neglect  or  crime  that  is  past 
**  Excuse  me  for  neglecting  to  call  yesterday :"  pardon  me. 

Remember,  reeoUeet.  We  remember  a  thing  which  we  retain  in  our  mind; 
we  recollect  it,  when,  though  having  gone  from  the  mind,  we  have  power  to 
call  it  back. 

Defect,  deficiency.  A  thing  which  is  incemplete  in  any  of  its  parts,  is  i{#- 
feciive ;  a  total  al>sence  of  the  tiling,  is  a  deficiency. 

This  subject  will  be  resumed  in  the  appendix  to  this  work. 


CORRECTIOiVlS  IN  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

From  among  those  words  which  are  often  erroneously  spelled,  the  follow* 
ing  are  sclectra  and  corrected  according  to  Johnson,  and  to  Cobb's  Dictionary. 

Ircorrsct. 

Abridgement 

abscision 

achievment 

adze 

agricidturalist 

ancle 

atti»miea 

baise 

bason 

bass 

bombazia 

boose 

bnult 

buccaneer 

bitrthea 

bye 


Correct. 

Incorrect. 

Correct. 

Abritlgment 

camblet 

camlet 

absctssioQ 

camptiire 

camphor 

achievement 

canvas 

canvass 

addice 

carcase 

carcass 

agriculturist 

centinel 

sentinel 

ankle 

chace 

chase 

attorneys 

chalibeate 

chalybeate 

baize 

chamelioa 

chameleon 

basin 

chiniict 

chemist 

base 

chimistry 

cheraistiy 

bombasin 

cholic 

colic 

bouse 

chuse 

chmwe 

bi.tt 

cimetar 

cinieter 

bucanier 

clench 

clinch 

burden 

cloke 

ChMlk 

by 

cobler 

cobbler 

chimnioft 

cfaimneja 

200 


CORHECTIOIfS    lit    ORTHOGRAriTT. 


l5CORR«CT. 

Correct. 

Incorrect. 

Correct. 

cbesuut  • 

chestnut 

maneuver 

manoeu\Te 

clue 

clew 

merchandize 

merchandise 

connection 

connexion 

misprison 

mls^prisiua 

C()i>et 

curslet 

rafiuies 

moneys 

c\  j.Iht 

cipher 

nionied 

m«)neved 

cy[tliering 

ciphering 

negociate 

negotiate 

dactyl 

dact^kle 

ueg(x:iation 

negotiation 

d»'v«-loi>e 

develop 

noridatB 

novitiate 

di[>thong 

diphthong 

ooae 

ooze 

«ii.-.j»atch 

despatch 

opake 

opaque 

(Inat 

dote 

paroxian 

paroxysm 

finmth 

drought 

partisan 

eiiibiltcr 

imhitter 

patronize 

patronise 

emlnMly 

inilKMly 

phrenzy 

phrensy 

enquire 

inquire 

pinchers 

pincers 

eiuiairer 

inquirer 

plow 

plough 

fiupiiry 

inquiry 

poney 

pony            ^ 

eiisnar© 

insnare 

potatoe 

potato 

tiiffTprize 

enterpriae 

qnere 

query 

rnilii'iil 

iiithrall 

recognize 

recomise 
rainueer 

nitreiich 

intrench 

reindeer 

entrenchment 

reinforce 

re-euforc« 

eiitnisl 

in  trust 

restive 

restiff 

enwrap 

in  wrap 

ribbon 

riband 

epinilette 

epaulet     . 

rince 

rinse 

,...,. .H,a 

ethereal 

smller 

saddler 

■t 

feg«U 

sallad 

iaiad 

I 

faucet 

sceptic 

skeptic 

IcUun 

felon 

sceptical 

skeptical 

T-e 

fy 

scepticism 

skepticimi 

porm 

germe 

se^ 

ci^ 

C'KsHn 

gosling 

seizor 

seignior 

■■]"'h]nt 

gimlet 

Serjeant 

sergeant 

. 

I3L 

shoar 

shore 

:i    ■'■O 

sooth 

sooth 

Itighlh 

height 
hiuderance 

staunch 

stanch 

iiiiul  ranee 

streight 

straight 

honied 

honeyed 

suitor 

suiter 

impale 
iucluse 

empale 
enclose 

svlhe 

scytiie 

tatler 

tattier 

inclosiire 

enclosure 

thresh 

thrash 

indict 

eudict 

thwak 

thwack 

indictment 

endictment 

tipler 

tippler 

indorse 

endorse 

tranquility 

tranquillity 

indorsement 

endorsement 

tripthong 

triphthong 

instructor 

instructer 

Irissyllable 

trisyllable 

insure 

ensure 

valice 

valise 

insurance 

ensurance 

vallies 

valleys 

judgement 
laquey 

judgment 

vise 

vice 

lackey 

vollies 

volleys 

laste 

last 

waggon 

wagon 

licence 

license 

warrantee 

w^arranty 

loth 

loath 

whoopingcough 

hoopingcough 

lothsomo 

loathsome 

woe 

wo 

**mloLUitenc 

malecontent 

yeast 

yeat 

CORRECTIONS    IN   ORTHOEPY. 


201 


CORBECTIONS  ¥IV  OBTIIOEPT. 

Tno  following  words  beiu^  often  erroneoUHly  ^>roiiounced  by  polite  people, 
as  w»j11  as  by  ilie  vulgar,  their  correction,  in  this  place,  agreeably  to  Cobb'$ 
Dictionary,  it  is  presnmeil,  will  be  useful  to  many.  Some  of  the  mispro* 
uuuciutions  given  are  provincial. 


F4te,  fir, 

fill,   fit— UM 

\,  mit— pine,  p 

-^ii-fadm 

:n — nA,  n3r 

,  nAt,  mftve- 

-tdbe,  t&b,  bau 

1— //lin — THIS. 

ORTItOOIU- 

Improper. 

Pronoun- 

Orthogra- 

• Improper. 

Pronouk- 

PHY. 

ced. 

phy. 

CED. 

Agiiin 

l-glne' 

l-cin' 

Etlge 
Kither 

lie 
\VH6r 

Wjc 

Against 
Ally 

i-lnste' 

l-c^nst 

A'TH&r 

iriA 

ll-ll' 

English 

ftng'Itsh 
i'rl 

Ing'gltsh 

Are 

Ire 

Ir 

Era 

i'rl 

Azure 

A/.h'&r 

I'zhire 

Ere 

^re 

ire 

Bade, 

h4de 

bid 

Fasten 

fls'tn 

fis'sn 

Beard 

bird 

biird 

Fearful 

f*r'f41 

fWr'fill 

Been 

Wn  or  biin 

t  bin 

Figure 

ftg'gftr 
f^nd 

fl«'ire 

Bleat 

blllt 

bl^^t 

Fiend 

f^ind 

Boil 

bile 

bill 

Firet 

f6st 

first 

Bonnrt 

ban'nftt 

bAn'nlt 

Foliage 

fatrije 

fA'l^-ije 

Bro*K:h 

britsh 

brMuh 

Fortune 

fflr'tshftn 

fAr'tsliAne 

Canal 

kl-nlwl' 

kl-nW 

Fortnight 

fArt'olt 

fArt'nIte 

Catch 

k^tsh 

k4tsh 

Fountain 

f5in'tn 

fAin'tln 

Cai:i'cway 

krAs'wl 

kiwz'wl  . 

Fracture 

frlk'tshfir 

frlk'tshAie 

Chalice 

k&Hs 

tshil'ts 

Fragrance 

frlg'rlnse 

frA'jr  rinse 

Chasten 

tshis'ln 

tshise'sn 

Futile 

fi'tile 

f4'itl 

Chiinrtey 

tshtm'bli 

tshlm'n^ 

Gather 

gftTH'ftr 

ciTH'Ar 

Chine 

tshhue 

tshlne 

Get 

gU 

P*t 

Choir 

kair 

kwJre 

Girth 

g6rt 

fi^r/A 

Clevy 

klivls 

kl4v\i 

Goal 

gMl 

gAle 

Clinch 

kl^nsh 

kllnsh 

Going 

jrAne/n-gA'l 

ngA'Inir 

Column 

kdrvftm 

k<)l'l&m 

Gold 

pfiflld 

gAld 

ConilMit 

kAm'bit 

k&m'blt 

Gum 

go5m 
be-{rrfttsh' 

gAtn 

Comma 

kdin'in^ 

kdin'ml 

Grudge 

prfidje 

Cmjuct 

kA-kw*t' 

kA-k*t' 

Gypsum 

gtp's&m 

^VsA. 

CorpH 

klv^ir 

kAre 

Has 

Cover 

k&v'6r 

Have 

hive 

hiv 

Deaf 

dWf 

d*f 

Heard 

h^rd 

bird 

D»*ci«'ve 

di-8ls'lv 

d^-sl'slv 

Hearth 

h&rMorhlMhlr/A 

I).p.)t 

d^'pAt 

d^ixS' 

Hiss 

siss 

hiss 

DrputC 

(l*p'A-tlze 

di-,.Ate' 

Hoist 

hlste 

hAlst 

Deputed 

d4t)'6«t\zd 

d^-p&'t«d 

Homely 

hftm'bll 

hAmolA 

Dcsi^^n 

d*-zlne' 

d^ine' 

Hoof 

hftf 

hAAf 

Dint 

d^nt 

dint 

Hostler 

hlw8'l6r 

As'l&r 

Docile 

dA'slle 

dAs'sll 

Humble 

h&m'bl 

6m'bl 

Di<iIUKt 

dt»^&8t' 

d1z-g6st' 

Jestine 

i^Htln 
"klttl 

j^t'tnjr 

Dismay 

d1».ml' 

d1z-ml' 

Kettle 

kit'tl 

Disown 

dt.^ne' 

dlz-Ane' 

Lecture 

l*k'tsh&r 

I^ktshdre 

D.>M 

d&rt 

d&«t 

LrLsuro 

I^zh'&r 
Wv'&r 

l^'zhAre 

Doth 

i\Uk 

d&/A 

Levcp 

U'vir 

Do.-^ 

dAAx 

d&z. 

Lid 

l«d 

lid 

Drain 

dfr^O 

drine 

Lilach 

ll'lAk 

aiik 

Drouj»bt 

ilr  f^Jilk 

drdit 

Loam 

IMm 

lAine 

Drowned 

drA«\nd'^ 

drd&nd 

Loo 

1& 

IM 

Ductile 

d&k'Ule 

d^'Ul 

Maintain 

mlne-tlne' 

mln-tlor 

20Q 


CORRECTIONS    IN    ORTHOEPY. 


Orthoora-  Improprr.  Pronoun- 

PHY.  Cr.D. 

Matron  mlt'Hkn  mi'trun 

Merniaid        niire'mide  m^r'tniJe 

Mountain      mddnltn  niAAn'tln 

Nature  n4'uh&r  ni'uh&re 

N*«ther  nl'Tn6r  ni'Tuftr 

Ot)lige  ihbl^je'  A-bUje' 

ObUque  6.bUAk'  Al>-llke' 

Of  Af  6v 

Oil  lie  All 

Only  6n']e  or  tnl^bne'lk 

Panther  p4ne't6r  p4n'/A6r 

Parent  p4rlnt  i>4'r*nl 

Partner  plrtl'n&r  pirt'n&r 

Pasture  pi«'uh\r  p4s'tsh&re 

Patron  )i4t'r{kn  p4'tr6n 

Pinoera  ptnsh'6n  pt  n'sAn 

Pith  jtkfJk  pta 

Plait  plMt  {il4te 

Poem  \t6vne  pA'im 

Point  plnte  pAtnt 

Pother  pArH'&r  pQTn'&r 

Precept  pr^'rtpt  pri'rtpt 

Preface  prA'flM  prtfOa 

Prrlude  pri'l&de  pr^ldde 

Process  -  prA'sAs  prAs'sis 

Product  prA'd&kt  pr4d'6kt 

Pro^TMS  prA'grte  prA^'iis 

Profile  prA'flle  prA-feil' 

Pumpion  p&nskln  p6mp'y&n 

Put  pftt  (verb)  p<St 

Quoit  kw4te  kwAU 

Riipine  ri'plne  r&p'ln 

R»'ar  rire  rWr 

Reptile  rfcp'tUe  r*p'tll 

Rid  rid  rid 

Rind  rine  rind 

Rinse  r*nse  rinse 

Rosin  rAz'&m  rAz'ln 

Routine  rAd'tene  rA^-te^n' 


Ortboora-  Improprr.    Pron-^ow- 


PHT. 

Roof 

Sacred 

Said 

Sat 

Says 

Scarce 

Schedule 

Shut 

Since 

Sleek 

.Sliver 

Slothful 

Soot 

Spikenard 

Spoil 

Steelyard 

Stamp 

Stint 

Sword 

Synod 

Therefore 

ThUl 

To 

Tour 

Treble 

Towards 

Trophy 

Tuesday 

Verdure 

Vizier 

Volume 

Were 

Yea 

Yes 

Yest 

Yet 

You 

Your 

Youth 


Orthography. 

Ague  and  fever 

Alternate 

Annunciate 

Andiron 

Antipodes 

Apparent 

Architecture 

Assumption 

Auxiliary 

Certiorari 

Christianity 

Clandestine 

Coadjutor 

Compendium 


Improper. 

fe'v&rn-i'g&r 

Iwl-tir'nlte 

4n-n&n'shite 

h&nd'l-&rn 

4n'ti-pAdz 

&p-p&r'int 

lrtsh'4-tftk-teh&r 

4s-s&nip'sh&n 

iwks-ll'i-r^ 

sish-&r-4r'iir 

krts-tsh4n'A-tA 

kl&n-dis'tlne 

kA-4d'jA-t&r 

kAm-p&n'd^-&m 


CEK 

'Aff  rMf 

84k'rM  si'^  su 

side  8^ 

Bit  sit 

s4ze  aH 

sklrse  8k4r8e 

Bkhd'Uo  ttiljhle 

sha  sh6t 

sinse  sinae 

silk  sl^k 

sllv'vftr  sIl'vAr 

Bl4w/Vai  slA/Afdl 

s&t  sAAt 

sp1^n6t  splke'nlrd 

spile  spAll 
sttry&rdz    '  ste^l'yird 

stAmp  st4mp 

stint  stint 

swArd  s6rd 

sl'ndd  8tn'6d 

Tii4re'f&re  Tiiir'fAre 

fll  Mil 

tA  tAA 

tAAr  tAAr 

tribal  trtbOiI 

tA-wlrdz'  tA'&rdz 

trAff*  trA'fi 

tsh&z'di  tAze'dS 

v6r'j&r  vtr'jire 

vl'zhir  viz'viir 

▼Ari&m  vAl'yi^me 

w4re  wir 

y4  yi 

yis  yls 
y^est  or  iest  yist 

ylt  yit 

yA  yAA 

yAre  yAA 

yA/A  yAA/A 

Prowounced. 

4'gA-ahd  fe'v&r 

41-t^r'n4te 

4n-n&n'sh^-4te 

4nd  l-Arn 

4n-t1p'A-dWz 

4p-p4'rint 

Ir'-ki-iik-tshire 

4s-s&m'sh&n 

iwg-z1l'y4-re 

sir-she-A-r4'rl 

krl8-tshi-4ne-ti 

kl4n-dis't1n 

kA-id-jA'tfir 

kAcn-n^n'ii-Ain 


CORRECnOlfS   Ilf   ORTHOEPY. 


203 


OtTHOmiAPHT. 

ConnoiaMur 
Courteous 
Coverlot 
Cowardice 
Decrepit 
DemonKtrata 
Dcsiiirratum 
I)i;iiiiontl 
'Discrepance 
Distratichiae  * 
Diithonest 
Disorder 
Electrify 
Emaciate 
Expatiate 
Expiatory 
Extempore 
Feminine 
F'requently 
Genuine 
Guardian 
Gymnastic 
Hallrlujah 
Hospital 
Hiimorous 
Idea 

Ignoramus 
In(I(>corous 
Irradiate 
Literati 
MaintenanoA 
Masculine* 

Mercantile 

Meliorate 

Molestation 

Museum 

National 

Nomenclatur* 

Nominative 

CMwtreperoiM 

Octavo 

Oratory 

Parentage 

PartiaHty 

Patronage 

PatriarcE 

Patriot 

Patriotism 

Philoloi^ 

Philosopbr 

PhDo9oj)bieal 

Pla^pansm 


Ikcorrect. 
k^n-nts-sAre' 
kArc'ti-fks 
k&v'6r-|ld 
kAd'&rd-lse 
d*-krtp1d 
dim'6n-8trite 
d^8ld4r-it'&m 
'  dl'mftnd 
d!s-krlp'in-»i 
dis  fr&n'tshlze 
dts-An'tst 
d1>t-4r'd6r 
4-l*k't&r-lze 
4-ml'shite 
tkH-p4'8h4te 
iks-pVA-tA-ri 
(k8-t^m'i)&re 
f*m'^-nlne 
fr«k'w«nt-li 
jin'i-lnc 
glr-d^n' 
elm-n&s'ttk 
h&l-l^-l6'i4 
Ms'ptt4l 
hJk'm&r-&8 
l-d*' 

tg-nA-rlm'68 
1n-d*k'A-rfi8 
1r-rAd'*-lte 
Itt4r-4t1 
tnine-tine'&nse 
m&s'kA-ltne 
niir'kln-tlle 
m6r- 
m6r- 

in*-irA-rite 
uiA-lis-ti'sh&n 

n4'8h6n-il 

n^m^n'kli-tare 

nAm'i-ilv 

4U-8trAp'p&-|&s 

Ak-iI'vi 

Ar'A-tA-r* 

p4'rftnt-4ie 

plr-shAlt-U 

pi'tr6n-4je 

pAt'r^lrk 

p4t'r^&t 

pAt'r^-&t-tzin 

h-lAl'IA-jlst 

n-iAs'A-fi 

n-IA-sAf'lk-M 
plA'gi-rIzm 


«  KO-iine 

r'k&n-tlle  i 

r-kAn-tWr  > 

r-k4n'ltl  ) 


Pronottvced. 

kA-ii4s-sArc' 

kftrlsW-&s 

k&v'&r-l*t 

kAd'&rd-la 

di-kr*p'tt 

de-mAn'strilo 

d^-std4-ri't&m 

dl'i-m&nd 

dts'kri-p&nse 

dls-frin'tehlz 

dlz-An'*8t 

dlz-Ar'd&r 

*-l*k'tr4-rt 

^•mi'sh^-lte 

4k8-p4'8hi-4te 

tks'p^i-l&r-iA 

iks-l^m'pArrA 

f*m'i-nln 

fr^'kw«nt-Ii 

jin'A-ln 

pyir'di-ln 

ilm-nls'tik 

hil-lMAA'yl 

Asp^-til 

yA  m6r-6s 

Ijr-nA-rl'mAs 

ln-(i^-kA'r&8 

1r-r4'd^4te 

11t4r4'tl 

min't^-ninse 

mis'kd-Itn 

m*r'k4n-tll 

in4'l^-A-r4te 

mAl4s-ti'sh&n 

mi -7^ 'Am 

n&8h'&n41 

nAm4n-kli't8bAr« 

nAm'i-n4-tlv 

Alv8tr4p'4r-&s 

Ak-tA'vA 

Ar'4-lAr-r4 

p4r4nt4je 

p4r-8h»4riA^A 

p4t'rAn-1je 

p4'tr*4rk 

p4tr^4t 

pA'ir*-At-tzm 

fi-lJl'lA-jlst 

f*-lAs'A-f4 

fll-A-xAfA-kil 

pl4'j4-rtxm 

pAzzis' 


204 


CORRECTIONS    IH    ORTHOEFT. 


Ortrograpbt. 

Possessive 

Possession 

Preventive 

Pronunciation 

Pr«>|HTiatiun 

Pn)j>hery 

Pn>|)hei«y 

R.iiio 

Rational 

Sacrament 

Sacrifice 

Stereotype 

Stopendooa 

Synonyme 

Transparent 

Transparency 

Tremendona 

Verbatim 

Volcano 

Whiffleti«e 


Incorbrct. 

pAeHits'dT 

pAe^h'ftn 
pr*-v>nt'l-tlT 
prA-n&n-s^-i'sh&n 
prA-pls-^-iVhua 
prAv  4^-hl  Tnoun) 
prSv'^sl  (verb) 
ft'shA 
r4'sh6n-4l 
84'kr&-n)int 
•A'kr^-flM  or  (fli) 
•t^'A-tlpe 
st&-p(n\l&-&8  ) 
stA-Dtn'j&s      5 

lrina-fi4r'*nt 

tr4ns-|i4r'in-s^ 

tr^mtn'(I&-6s  ) 

tr^niin'j&s      ) 

v«r-b&tim 

vA|.kl'n6 

hwlp'pl-trA 


PRONOU1CCB9). 

fjAz-zis'slv 
pAz-z^xh  &n 
pri-vftnl't  V 
pr6-n&n-8h^-i'8h6n 
prA-ptsI)-^-4'sh6n 
prAf^-s^  (noun) 
prAr*-sl  (verb) 
ri'sW-A 
r&sh'6n-4I 
84k'r&-m4nt ' 
■ik'r^-flze 
st^'ri^tlpe 

•t&-pin'd&a 

sln'^nlm 

trlns-p&'r^nt 

tr4ns-p4'r(n-«i 

tr^mftn'd&s 

vtr-b4't1m 

v4l-k4'n6 

h%vlf'fl-tr« 


NoTB  1. — AVhen  the  words  learned,  hles»ed,  loved,  J^e.  are  nsed  aspaidcip 
ml  adjectivea,  the  termination  ed  should  generaOy  be  pronounced  as  a  sepa- 
rate syllable ;  aa,  **  A  leam-ed  man ;  The  blesM-ed  Redeemer ;"  bat  when 
they  are  employed  as  verba,  the  ed  is  contracte<l  in  pronunciation ;  as,  "  He 
leam'd  his  lesaon ;  They  are  lop*d;  I  have  waU^d" 

2.  Tlie  accent  of  the  following  words  fidls  on  those  syllables  expressed  in 
the  italic  characters :  Eu  ro  ;»«  an,  hy  me  iie  al,  Ce  sa  re  a,  co  ad  ju  tor,  ep  i 
cu  re  an,  in  ter  eat  ed,  m  ter  est  iiig,  rep  a  ra  ble,  ree  og  nise,  ^^  is  la  ture. 
o^  li  ga  to  ry,  in  com  pa  ra  ble,  ir  rep  a  ra  ble,  in  «x  o  ra  ble.  In  a  lar^e 
class  of  words,  the  vowels  a,  «,  and  ai,  should  be  pronounced  like  Icmg  a  m 
late  ;  such  B&,/aret  rare,  there,  their,  vkere,  air,  chair,  compare,  declare,  &<;. 
In  the  words  person,  perfect;  mercy,  interpret,  determine,  and  the  like,  the 
vowel  e  before  r,  is  often  erroneously  somided  lik£  short  %,  Its  proper  sound 
is  that  of  e  in  met,  pet,  imperative. 

3.  With  respect  to  the  pnmunciation  of  the  words  aky,  kind,  gvide,  &jc.  it 
appears  that  a  mistake  extensively  prevails.  It  is  believed  that  their  com- 
mon pronunciation  by  the  vulgar,  is  the  correct  one,  and  agreeable  to  the  pro- 
nunciation intended  by  Mr.  John  Walker.  The  proper  diphthmigal  sounds 
in  sk^l,  kyind,  ^de,  are  adopted  by  the  common  mass,  and  perverted  by 
those  who,  in  their  unnatural  and  affected  pronunciation  of  these  words,  say, 
ske-l,  k^ude,  gi-ide.  This  latter  mode  of  pronotmciug  them  in  two  syll»> 
bles,  is  as  incorrect  and  ridiculous  as  to  pronoimce  the  words  boil,  toil,  in  two 
syllables;  thns,  bi-U.  t^-tl. 

4.  Jl/y,  tpind.  When  my  is  contrasted  with  thy,  his,  her,  your,  &c.  it  is 
prouoimced,  ml :  in  all  other  situations,  it  is  pronounced,  me ;  as,  "  My  me'\ 
son,  give  ear  to  my  [»p^]  counsel."  When  trind  ends  a  line  in  poetry,  and  is 
made  to  rhyme  with  mind,  bind,  kind,  &c.  it  is  pronouQped,  wind  i  but,  io 
other  sitoationa,  it  is  pronounced,  wind. 

"  Lo,  the  poor  Indian !  whose  untutored  mind 
<'  Se«P  God  in  clouds,  or  hears  him  in  the  wind.** 


PBOYINCIALISMS. 


205 


PROTIIVCIAIilSIflS. 

CONTRACTIONS,    VULGARISMS,    AND    OTHER    IMPROPRIETIES. 

As  each  of  the  fulhiwing  provincialisms  and  vulgarisms,  has  its  locality  in 
some  one  section  or  other  of  our  country,  it  is  hoped  timt  these  corrections  will 
be  found  useful  in  tlie  districts  to  which  the  various  phrases  respectively  belong. 


IMPROFER. 

CORRECT. 

Aint 

Are  not 

haint 

have  not 

taint 

'tis  not 

baint 

are  not 

maint 

may  not 

wont 

will  not 

wcr'nt 

were  not 

Haunt 

was  not 

woodent 

would  not 

xnussent 

must  not 

izzent 

is  not 

wazzent 

was  not 

bezzent 

has  not  , 

QOOSXBnS 

does  not' 

tizzent 

'tis  not 

whool 

who  will 

don't 

can't 

i'll 

'ti<! 

Common 

IN  New  England   or 

New  York. 

Akst 

iskt 

Ua 

bin 

m 

hAIe 

b&m 

hAme 

•t&a 

BtAne 

dAAs 

d&z 

gll» 

gll« 

mlw 

miss 

briM 

brl« 

fliwnt 

Sl!!t 

htz'zn 

hiz 

Wd'zn 

haaz'lz 

An'shint 

inc'tsh^nt 

4n'jAl 

ine'jM 

d&n'j6r 

dine'jftr 

•trAn'jar 

strlnej&r 

Uhlm'b6r 

Uh4nie'b&r 

txiUr 

ni'tshire 

nit'6r4l 

n4t»h'i-r41 

f^rtln 

f3r'tHhine 

iSr't^w-nite 

fdr'tKhi-nite 

vftr'l^w 

vir'uhA 

Tkr'Uw-A* 

v4r't«h&-6s 

IS 


IMPROPER. 

correct. 

ik'tiw41 

&k'UhA-&l 

Wiw-kite 

hii'iii-kktO 

flVH&r 

fiTH'tr 

heft 

weight 

stoop 

porch 

stent 

task 

helve 

handle 

muss 

disorder 

dump 

unload 

scup 

swing 

shay 

gig  or  chaise 

cutter 

one-horse  sleigh 

staddle 
foxy 

Sl^sl 

Buple 

spry  or  supple 

In  Pennsylvania 

Strenth 

strength 
length 

lenth 

brenth 

breadth 

ort 

ought 

nan 

what 

wisht 

wish 

wunst 

once 

ouch 

oh 

cheer 

chair 

spook 

ghost 

furnentz 

op|)osito 

wanity 

vanity 

in  wain 

in  vain 

ornary 

ordinary 

for  by 
we  bit 

to  snare 
small  piece 

disremember 

do  not  remember 

Irisr. 

DMr 

dAre 

flMr 

flAre 

And     • 

Ind 

lAs. 

IMz 

kMne 

kAnM) 

HAdrse 

sArse 

till 

tM 

p6t 

Dit 

f&t 

fit 

4-k.Wnt' 

4k-k.'.Snt' 

p&l'pit 

pirplt 

oire's&D 

plr'sn 

206 


PROVmCIALISMS. 


IMPROPR*. 

COR^CT. 

IMPROPER. 

Md.  Va. 

Ky.  Mih«.  &c. 

8hk<^6h6t 

Tiilr 
whir 

Tuire 
hwire 

t&te  or  f  dtch 

l.ir  [bear] 

Ure 

hAp'd 

wlr 

wftr 

c4-hMt' 

m5At 

mite  [might] 

mlr'bl 

gwlne 

gAIng 

CORRECT. 

rid 

kir'r^,  fftuh,  or 

bring 

plrt'n6r-«htp 
mAAv  iff 


Clever,  pretty,  ugly,  euruma,  expect,  guewt,  andfefJton,  though  cop. 
jra«,  have,  among  the  common  people  of  New  Knglaiid  and 


Note. 
rect  Kuglish  wor 

New  York,  a  provincial  application  and  meaning.  With  them,  a  clever  man, 
is  one  of  a  gentle  and  obli^ng  disposition  ;  instead  of,  a  man  of  distinguished 
talent«  an<l  profoimd  acquireinenta.  Pretty  and  ugly,  they  apply  to  the  rfi#- 
potition  of  a  |)erson,  instead  of,  to  his  external  appearance.  In  these  states, 
one  will  often  hear,  "  I  guett  it  rains,"  when  the  speaker  knows  this  to  be  a 
feet,  and,  therefore,  gucMting  is  uncalled  for.  "  I  expect  I  can  go  ;"  or,  "  I 
reckon  I  can ;"  instead  of,  "  I  tnppote  or  presume."  In  New  England,  a 
clergyman  is  often  called  a  minUier,  in  Now  York,  a  priest,  and  south  of 
N.  Y.  a  parson.     The  last  is  preferable. 

KKW   BKOLAND  OR  NEW  YORK. 

I  be  goin.     He  lives  to  hum. 
Hese  ben  to  hum  this  two  weeks. 
You  haddent  ought  to  do  it.     Yes 
had  ought. 

Taint  no  better  than  hizzen. 
Izzent  that  are  line  writ  well  T 
Tizzent  no  better  than  this  ere. 


CORRECTED. 

I  am  going.     He  lives  at  home. 

He  has  been  at  home  these  2  weeks. 

You  ought  no/  to  do  it.  Certainly  I 
ought. 

'  Tis  no  better  than  his. 

Is  not  that  line  well  written  t 

It  is  no  better,  or,  it  it  not  any  bet- 
ter than  this. 

The  covs  are  gone  home^  and  /  am 
going  after  them. 


hissing  hot. 

Go,  Nathaniel,  and  cut  a  sapling,  to 
make  a  lever  of.     I  teas  about  to  go, 


The  keows  be  gone  to  hum,  neow, 
and  Fmer  goin  arter  um. 

He'll  be  here,  derights,  and  bringf  He  iciU  be  here,  directly,  and  bring 
7011m  and  thaim.  iyours  and  theirs. 

He  touch 'd  the  stxm  which  I  shewj  He  touched  the  s^on£  which  I  xAinreti 
him,  an  di  guess  it  made  him  sithe,  for  him,  and  it  niade  him  sigh,  for  it  teas 
'twHs  cissing  hot. 

Run,  Thanel,  and  cut  a  staddle,  for 
to  make  a  lever  on.  Ize  jest  agoueter 
go,  daddy.  ;Or,  intending  to  go  immediately,  father. 

Where  shell  I  dump  my  cart,  square  ?!  Where  shall  I  unload  my  cart  7  Yon- 
DumD  it  yender.  Whats  the  heft  of  irfer.  IV hat  is  Hie  tceight  of  y our  \oad1 
your  load  ? 

When  ju  git  hum  from  Hafford?!  When  did  you  return  from  Hartford? 
K  fortnit  ago.  You  diddent,  did  ye?  A  fortnight  ago.  Is  it  possible  !  Did 
fu  see  my  Danel,  whose  sot  up  a  you  see  my  son  Daniel,  who  has  opened 
Harvem  there  T  No.  Hede  gone  aiore  a  public  house  there  ?  No.  He  had  left 
I  got  there.  O,  the  pesky  criter !  A^/orc  I  arrtrei  there.  0,xhe  paltry 
Hele  soon  be  up  a  stump.  fellow !   He  tcill  soon  come  to  naught. 

My  frinds  supurb  mansion  is  de-  My  friend's  superb  mansion  is  de- 
fightmlly  sitewated  on  a  nate-erallli^htfiilly  «i7t/r7<c<£  on  anfl/t<ra/ mound 
laouud  of  considerable  hilhe.  It  hez  of  considerable  height.  It  has  a  long 
a  long  stoop  in  front ;  but  it  is  furderi  porch  in  front ;  but  it  \&  farther  from 
from  the  city  than  I'de  like  ray  hum.   the  city  than  I  would  like  to  reside. 

I  know'd  the  gal  was  drowuded,;  I  knew  the  girl  had  been  drowned^ 
■nil  tell'd  tbe  inquisitioners,  that  ize  and  I  tol^  the  jury  of  inquest,  that  Jwa$ 


PROVINCIALISMS. 


207 


iriW  ESCOLAND. 

Bither  eeentin  nor  jokin  about  it ;  bat 
if  they  d  pennit  me  to  give  em  ray 
ideze.  they'd  obleege  me.  So  1  par- 
■evered,  and  carried  my  pinte.  You 
dou't  Bay  «o.  Be  you  from  Barkshire  7 
I  be.  Neow  I  swan !  if  I  aint  clean  beat. 
You  baint  from  the  Jarseys,  be  ye  T 
Yes.  Gosh  !  then  I  guess  you  kneow 
heow  to  tend  tarvem. 

IN    rK.HNSTLVAIVIA. 

I  seen  him.     Have  you  saw  him  ? 
Yes,  I  have  saw  him  wunst;  and  that] Yes 
was  before  you  seed  him. 

I  done  my  task.      Have  you  did 
yours  T     No,  but  I  be  Ui  do  it. 

I  be  to  be  there.     He  kuow'd  me. 

Leave  rae  be,  for  Ime  afear'd. 
I  never  took  notice  to  it. 

I  wish  I  haddent  did  it ;  howsum- 
ever,  I  dont  keer :  they  cant  skeer  me. 

Give  me  them  there  books. 

He  ort  to  go ;  so  he  ort. 

No  he  orten. 

Dont  scrouffe  me. 

I  diddent  go  to  do  it 

Aint  that  a  good  hand  write  T 

Nan  ?  I  know'd  >yhat  ho  meant,  but 
1  never  let  on. 

It  is  a  long  mile  to  town.     Ah  !  I 
tiiought  'twas  unle  a  short  mile. 
Irish. 

Not   here   the  day;    he   went  till 
Pituburg. 

Let  us  be  after  pairsing  a  wee  bit. 

Where  did  you  loss  it  T 

Md.  Va.  Kt.  or  Miss. 

Carry  the  horse  to  water. 

Tote  the  wood  to  the  river. 
Have  you  focht  the  water  T 

Fve  made  200  bushels  of  com  thi« 
year. 

He  has  run  against  a  snag. 

Is  that  your  plunder,  stranger  T 

He  will  soon  come  of  tliat  habit 

I  war  thar.  and  I  aeen  his  boat  was 
.cadend  too  heavy. 
Whar  you  gwine  f 
Hese  in  cohoot  with  me. 
Did  yoa  get  shet  of  your  tobaoca  f 


Who  hoped  yoa  to  sell  itf 


CORRECT KD. 

not  jetting  about  it ;  bat,  by  ptrmitting 
me  to  give  them  my  view  of  the  tubjrrt^ 
thoy  would  oblige  me.  So,  I  peraever- 
ed,  and  pained  my  point.  Indeed  !  Are 
you  from  Berkshire  f    I  am.    ReaUif  . 

am  surprised. 

Are  you  from  New  Jertep?     Yet. 
Theu  I  presume  you  know  how  to  ten 
a  tavern. 

CORIKCTED. 

I  saw  him.  Have  you  seen  him  T 
,  onee ;  and  that  was  before  you 
saw  him. 

I  have  done  my  task.  Have  yoa 
done  yours  T     No,  but  I  must. 

I  shali  be  there ;  or,  I  must  be  there. 
He  knew  me. 

Let  me  be,  for  I  am  afraid.  • 

I  never  took  notice  of  it :  or,  better 
thus,  I  never  noticed  it. 

I  wish  I  had  not  done  it :  however,  I 
disregard  them.   They  cannot  scare  toe 

Give  me  those  books. 

He  ouffht  to  go,  really. 

He  ought  not. 

Don't  crowd  me. 

I  did  not  intend  to  do  it. 

Is  not  that  beantiful  writing  T 

What  T  I  knew  what  he  meant,  but 
I  kept  thnt  to  myself. 

It  is  a  little  over  a  mile  to  town.  Ah ! 
[  supposed  it  to  be  less  than  a  mile. 

CORRECTED. 

He*is  not  here  to-day.     He  went  to 

Pittsburg. 

Let  us  parse  a  little. 
Where  did  you  lose  it  T 

CORRECTED. 

Lead  the  horse  to  water;  or,  water 
the  horse. 

Carry  the  wood  to  the  river. 

Have  you  fetched,  or  brought^  the 
water  T 

have  raised  200  bushels  of  corn 
this  year. 

He  has  got  into  diffienliy. 

Is  that  your  baggage,  sir  t 

He  will  soon  overcome,  or  gei  rid  of, 
that  habit. 

I  was  there,  and  I  saw  that  his  boat 
was  too  heavily  laden,  or  loaded. 

Where  are  you  going  T 

He  is  in  partnership  with  roe. 

Did  you  get  rid,  or  dispose  </,  y  -nr 
tobacco  t 

Who  helped  yoa  to  sell  itt 


208  PROSODY. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody  treats  of  the  modulations  of  the  voice 
according  to  the  usages  of  the  language  we  speak, 
and  the  sentiments  we  wish  to  express :  hence,  in 
its  most  extensive  sense,  it  comprises  all  the  laws  of 
elocution. 

Prosody  is* commonly  divided  into  two  parts:  the 
first  teaches  the  true  pronunciation  of  words,  com- 
prising accent^  quajitity^  emphasis^  pause,  and  tone; 
and  the  second,  the  laws  ot  versification. 

Accent.     Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice 

%n  a  particular  letter  or  syllable  in  a  word,  that  it  may  be  better 

heard  than  the  rest,  or  distinguished  from  them  ;  as,  in  the  word 

presumey  the  stress  of  the  voice  must  be  on  the  letter  u,  and  the 

second  syllable,  sumey  which  syllable  takes  the  accent. 

Every  word  of  more  syllables  than  one,  has  one  accented  syl- 
lable. For  the  sake  of  euphony  or  distinctness  in  a  long  word, 
we  frequently  give  a  secondary  accent  to  another  syllable  besides 
the  one  which  takes  the  principal  accent;  as,  'tes ti mo' nValj 
a  ban'  don  "ing. 

Quantity.  The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  that  time  which  is 
occupied  in  pronouncing  it.     It  is  considered  as  long  or  short. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  vowel ; 
which  causes  it  to  be  slowly  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  fol- 
lowing letters  ;  as,  "  Fall,  bale,  moqji,  house,  feature." 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  consonant ;  which 
causes  the  vowel  to  be  quickly  joined  to  the  succeeding  letter ; 
"  as,  ant,  bonnet,  hunger." 

A  long  syllable  generally  requires  double  the  time  of  a  short 
sne  in  pronouncing  it ;  thus,  "  mate"  and  "  note"  should  be  pro- 
nounced as  slowly  again  as  "  mat"  and  "  n6t." 

Emphasis.  By  emphasis  is  meant  a  stronger  and  fuller  sound 
of  the  voice,  by  which  we  distinguish  some  word  or  words  on 
which  we  design  to  lay  particular  stress,  and  to  show  how  they  atfect 
the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Sometimes  the  emphatic  words  must  be 
distinguished  by  a  particular  tone  of  voice,  as  well  as  by  a  greater 
stress. 

Emphasis  will  be  more  fully  explained  mider  the  head  of  Elocution. 

Pauses.  Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are  a  total 
cessation  of  the  voice  during  a  perceptible,  and,  in  many  cases,  a 
measurable  space  of  time. 


PtmCTUATION.  209 

Tones.  Tones  arc  diflferent  both  from  emphasis  and  pauses ;  con- 
Bisling  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  or  the  notes  or  variations  of 
sound  which  we  employ  in  the  expression  of  our  sentiments. 

Emphasis  affects  particular  words  and  phrases ;  but  tones  affect 
Muitenccs,  paragraphs,  and  sometimes  a  whole  discourse. 


PlJ]VCTUATIOIV. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  com- 
position into  sentences  or  parts  of  sentences,  by 
points  or  stops,  in  order  to  mark  the  different  pauses 
which  the  sense  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  re- 
quire. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause ;  the  Semicolon^  a 
pause  double  that  of  the  comma  ;  the  Colon,  double  that  of  the 
semicolon  ;  and  the  Period,  double  that  of  the  colon. 

Punctuation  is  a  motlem  art.  The  ancients  were  entirely  unacquainted 
•witJi  the  u«e  of  points ;  and  wrote,  not  only  without  any  distiuctiou  of  mem- 
bers and  |)eri<xl8,  but  al»o  witliout  any  distinction  of  wonls.  This  custom 
continued  till  the  year  360  before  Christ.  How  the  ancients  read  their 
works,  written  iu  X\\\fi  manner,  it  is  not  ea.sy  to  conceive.  After  the  practice 
of  joining  wortls  together  had  ceai^d,  notes  of  distinction  were  placed  at  tho 
end  of  every  word.     This  practice  continued  a  considerable  time. 

As  it  appears  that  the  present  usage  of  points  did  not  take  place  while 
manuscripts  and  monumental  inscriptions  were  the  only  known  methods  of 
conveying  knowletlge,  we  must  conclude,  that  it  was  intrmluced  with  the 
art  of  printing.  The  introduction  w>is,  however,  gradual :  all  tlie  points  did 
not  nppear  at  once.  The  colon, ^semicolon,  and  note  of  admiration,  were 
produced  some  time  after  the  others.  The  whole  set.  as  they  are  now  used, 
Decame  established,  when  learning  and  refinement  had  made  considerable 
progreM. 

As  the  rules  of  punctuation  are  founded  altogether  on  the  gram- 
matical construction  of  sentences,  their  application  pre-supposes, 
on  the  part  of  the  student,  a  knowledge  of  Syntax.  Although 
they  admit  of  exceptions,  and  require  a  continual  exercise  of 
judgment  and  literary  taste  in  applying  them  properly,  they  are  of 
great  utility,  and  justly  merit  our  particular  attention. 

The  great  importance  of  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
punctuation,  and  of  attending  strictly  to  the  application  of  its  rules, 
is  established  by  the  single  fact,  that  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  is 
often  totally  perverted  hy  the  omission  or  misapplication  of  points. 
To  illustrate  the  correctness  of  this  remark,  numerous  examples 
might  be  selected.  The  following  border  on  the  ridiculous:  "  Mr, 
Jared  Hurton  having  gone  to  sea  his  wife,  desires  the  prayers  of  this 
church ;"  "  Tryon,  who  escaped  from  the  jail  on  Friday  last,  is  29 

18* 


ilO  PUftCTUATION. 

years  of  age,  has  sandy  hair,  light  eyes,  thin  visage,  with  a  short 
nose  turned  up  about  six  feet  high,  <kc."  Corrected  ;  "  Mr.  Jared 
Hurton  liaving  gone  to  sea,  his  wife  desires  the  prayers  of  this 
church  ;"  "  thin  visage,  with  a  short  noae  turned  up,  about  six  feet 
high,  <fec." 

Before  one  enters  upon  the  study  of  punctuation,  it  is  necessary 
for  him  to  understand  what  is  meant  by  an  adjunct^  a  simple  sen- 
lencCy  and  a  compound  sentence. 

An  adjunct  or  imperfect  phrase  contains  no  assertion,  or  does 
not  amount  to  a  proposition  or  sentence  ;  as,  "  Therefore ;"  "  stu- 
dious of  praise;"  **  in  the  pursuit  of  commerce." — For  the  defi- 
nition of  a  sentence,  and  a  compound  sentence,  turn  to  page  119. 

When  two  or  more  adjuncts  are  connected  with  the  verb  in  the 
tame  manner,  and  by  the  same  preposition  or  conjunction,  the 
sentence  is  compound,  and  may  be  resolved  into  as  many  simple 
ones  as  there  are  adjuncts  ;  as,  "  They  have  sacrificed  their  health 
and  fortune,  at  the  shrine  of  vanity,  pride,  and  extravagance.^* 
But  when  the  adjuncts  are  connected  with  the  verb  in  a  different 
manner,  the  sentence  is  simple  ;  as,  "  Grass  of  an  excellent  qual- 
ity, is  produced  in  great  abundance  in  the  northern  regions  of  our 
country." 

COnMA. 

RULE  1.  The  members  of  a  simple  sentence  should  not,  in 
general,  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Every  part  of  matter 
swarms  with  living  creaVjres." 

Exercise f  in  Punetuaiion. — Idleness  i«  tbe  great  foraenter  of  all  corrap* 
tions  in  the  human  heart.  The  friend  of  order  has  made  half  his  way  to 
virtue.     All  fiuery  is  a  sign  of  littleness. 

RULE  2.  When  a  simple  sentence  is  long,  and  the  nominative 
is  accompanied  with  an  inseparable  adjunct  of  importance,  it  may 
admit  a  comma  immediately  before  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The  good  taste 
of  the  present  age,  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect  the  cultivation  of 
the  English  language ;"  "  Too  many  of  the  pretended  friendships 
of  youth,  are  mere  combinations  in  pleasure." 

Exercise*. — The  indulgence  of  a  harsh  disprwition  is  the  introduction  to 
future  mi^ry.  To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure  is  a  real  defec* 
m  character.  The  intermixture  of  evU  in  human  society  serves  to  exercise 
the  suffering  graces  and  virtues  of  the  good. 

RULE  3.  When  the  connexion  of  the  different  parts  of  a  sim- 
ple sontence,  is  interrupted  by  an  adjunct  of  importance,  the  ad- 
junct must  be  distinguished  by  a  comma  before  and  after  it;  as. 
**  His  work  is,  in  many  respects,  veiy  imperfect.  It  is,  therefore, 
not  much  approved."     But  when  these  interruptions  are  slight 


PUlfCTUATIOH.  211 

and  unimportant,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma;  as,  "Flattery 
is  certainly  pernicious ;"  •*  There  is  surely  a  pleasure  in  benefi- 
cence." 

f .>-^ — Charity  like  the  sun  brightens  all  it«  objects.     Gentleness  is 

Lfreat  avenue  to  mutual  enjoyment.     You  loo  have  your  failinss. 
11  .;i(l  knpwledge  with  poor  apparel  excel  pride  and  ignorance  uncTer 

cu.s'^Iy  uuiro.  The  best  men  often  experience  disappointments.  Advice 
iliiuld  be  seasonably  administered.  No  a^umed  behavior  can  always  hide 
Ihc  i-eal  character. 

RULE  4.  The  nominative  case  independent,  and  nouns  in  ap- 
position when  accompanied  with  adjuncts,  must  be  distinguished 
oy  commas;  as,  "My  soriy  give  me  thy  heart;"  "Hear  Sir,  I 
write  to  express  my  gratitude  for  your  many  kindnesses;"  "I  am 
obliged  to  you,  my  friends,  for  your  many  favors;"  ^^  Paul,  the 
apostle jO^  ihc  Gentiles,  was  eminent  for  hfs  zeal  and  knowledge  ;" 
**  The  buUerJly,  child  of  the  summer,  flutters  in  the  sun." 

But  if  two  nouns  in  apposition  are  unattended  with  adjuncts,  or 
if  they  form  only  a  proper  name,  they  should  not  be  separated  ; 
as,  "  Paul  the  apostle,  suffered  martyrdom  ;"  "  The  statesman 
Jefferson,  wrote  the  declaration  of  Independence." 

Exerciset. — Lord  thou  hast  been  our  dwelling  place  in  all  generations. 
Continue  my  dear  child  to  make  virtue  thy  chief  stuily.  Canst  tliou  expect 
thou  betrayer  of  innocence  to  escape  the  band  of  vengeance  7  Death  the 
king  of  tenTtrs  chose  a  prime  minister.  Hope  the  balm  of  life  sooths  us 
ubdcr  every  misfortune.  Confucius  the  great  Chinese  philosopher  was  emi- 
n«Mitly  good  as  well  as  wise.  The  patriarch  Joseph  is  an  illustrious  example 
of  true  piety. 

RULE  5.  The  nominative  case  absolute  and  the  infinitive  mood 
absolute  with  their  adjuncts,  a  participle  with  words  depending 
on  it,  and,  generally,  any  imperfect  phrase  which  may  be  resolved 
into  a  simple  sentence,  must  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
spntence  by  commas  ;  as,  "  His  father  dying,  he  succeeded  to  the 
estate  ;"  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault ;"  "  The  king,  ap- 
proving the  plan,  put  it  in  execution  ;"  "  He,  having  finished  hi^ 
academical  course,  has  returned  home,  to  prosecute  his  professional 
studies." 

Exereitea.—VeAce  of  mind  beinjg;  secured  we  may  smile  at  misfortime. 
To  enjov  present  pleasure  be  ncrinced  his  future  ease  and  reputatiiHi.  Mis 
taliMits  fonned  for  great  enterprises  coiUd  not  fail  of  rendering  him  conspic- 
uous. The  |«th  of  piety  and  virtue  pursue<l  with  a  firm  and  constant  >«i)irit 
will  assuredly  lead  to  happiness.  All  mankind  compose  one  family  assem- 
bled under  the  eye  of  one  common  Father. 

RULE  6.  A  compound  sentence  must  be  resolved  into  simple 
ones  by  placing  commas  between  its  members ;  as,  "  The  decay, 
the  WLste,  and  the  dissolution  of  a  plant,  may  affect  our  spirits, 
and  suggest  a  train  of  serious  reflections." 


212  PUNCTUATION. 

Three  or  more  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  participles^  or  adverbs, 
connected  by  conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood,  must  be  sep- 
arated by  commas  ;  as,  "  The  husband,  wife,*  and  children,!  suf- 
fered extremely  ;*'  "  In  a  letter,  we  may  advise,  exhort,  comfort, 
request,  and  discuss;"  "  David  was  a  brave,  wise,  and  pious  man  ;* 
"  A  man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving  his  Creator,  lives  for  a  noble 
purpose  ;"  "  Success  generally  depends  on  acting  prudently,  stead- 
ily, and  vigorously,  in  what  we  undertake." 

Two  or  more  nouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  participles,  or  adverbs, 
occurring  in  the  same  construction,  with  their  conjunctions  under- 
stood, must  be  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  Reason,  virtue,  an- 
swer one  great  aim  ;"  "  Virtue  Supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in 
prosperity ;"  "  Plain,  honest  truth,  needs  no  artificial  covering;" 
"  We  are  fearfully,  wonderfully  framed." 

£T«>rr»«««.—- W0  have  no  reason  to  complain  of  the  lot  of  man  nor  of  the 

in      '             "*   '  lid.     Seuimality  coutaminates  the  bodv  depresses  the 

t :  s  the  moral  feelings  of  the  heart  antl  degrades  man 

IV V  — l:.)n. 

SeU-concfit  ])resnm}>tion  and  obstinacy  blast  the  prospects  of  many  a  youth. 
He  is  alteniati'Iy  supfKirted  by  his  father  his  uncle  and  his  elder  brother. 
The  man  of  virtue  and  honor  will  be  trusted  relied  u\x)u  and  esteemed. 
Con$icious  guilt  renders  one  mean-spirited  timorous  and  base.  An  upright 
mind  will  never  l>e  at  a  loss  to  discern  what  is  just  and  true  level v  honest 
and  of  good  report.  I^Iabita  of  reading  writing  and  thinking  are  the  indis- 
pensable (pialifirations  of  a  goixi  student.  The  great  business  of  life  is  to  be 
employe*!  in  doin^  justly  loving  mercy  and  walking  liimibly  \\-ith  our  Creator. 
To  live  stiberlv  ngnteously  and  piously  comprehends  the  whole  of  our  duty. 

In  our  health  life  possessions  couuexious  pleasures  tliere  are  causes  of 

•  The  correctness  and  importance  of  this  rule  appear  to  be  so  ob>'ious,  as 
to  render  it  not  a  little  surprising,  that  any  trriter,  possessing  the  least  degree 
of  rhetorical  taste,  should  reject  it  I  am  bold  to  affirm,  that  it  is  obser%ed 
by  every  correct  reader  and  speaker ;  and  yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  it  is 
generally  violated  by  those  printers  who  punctuate  by  the  ear,  and  all  others 
who  are  influenced  by  their  pernicious  example  ;  thus,  "  The  head,  the  heart 
and  the  hands,  should  he  constantly  and  actively  employed  in  doing  o^ood." 
Why  do  they  not  omit  the  comma  where  the  conjunction  is  understood  ?  It 
w^ould  be  doing  no  greater  violence  to  the  principles  of  elocution  ;  thns, 
**  The  head  the  heart  anil  the  hands,  should  be,  &c."  or  thus,  "  The  head  the 
heart,  ^ud  the  hands,  should  be  employed,"  &c.  Who  does  not  perceive 
that  the  latter  pause,  where  the  conjimction  is  expressed,  is  as  necessary  at 
the  former,  where  the  conjunction  is  understood  ?  And,  since  tliis  is  the 
case,  what  fair  objection  can  be  made  to  the  following  method  of  punctua- 
tion f  "  The  head,  the  heart,  and  the  hands,  should  be  constantly  and  ac- 
dyely  employed  in  doing  good ;"  "  She  is  a  woman,  gentle,  sensible,  well- 
educated,  and  religious." 

t  As  a  considerable  pause  in  pronunciation  is  necessary  between  the  last 
noun  and  the  verb,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  to  denote  it ;  but  as  no  pause 
is  allowable  between  the  Jast  adjective  and  the  noun,  or  between  the  last 
adverb  and  the  verb,  the  comma,  in  such  instances,  is  properly  omitted ;  thus, 
•*  David  ^as  a  brave,  wise,  and  pious  man." 


PUNCTUATION.  213 

decay  imperceptibly  working.  Deliberate  slowly  execute  promptly.  An 
idle  trifling  nociety  w  near  akin  to  such  as  is  corniptin^.  This  lutlmppy  per- 
son had  been  iteriuuitly  aifectiunateiy  aUmouibhed  but  in  vain. 

RULE  7.  Comparative  sentences  whose  members  are  short, 
and  sentences  connected  with  relative  pronouns  the  meaning  of 
whose  antecedents  is  restricted  or  limited  to  a  particular  sense, 
should  not  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Wisdom  is  better  than 
riches ;"  "  No  preacher  is  so  successful  as  time  ;"  "  He  accepted 
tchail  had  rejected;"  "Self-denial  is  tlie  sacrifice  which  virtue 
must  make ;"  "  Subtract  from  many  modern  poets  all  that  may 
be  found  in  Shakspeare,  and  trash  will  remain ;"  "  Give  it  to  the 
man  whom  you  most  esteem."  In  this  last  example,  the  assertion 
is  not  of  "  man  in  general,"  but  of  "  the  man  whom  you  most 
esteem." 

But  when  the  antecedent  is  used  in  a  general  sense,  a  comma 
is  properly  inserted  before  the  relative  ;  as  "  Man,  who  is  bom  of 
a  woman,  is  of  few  days  and  full  of  trouble  ;"  "  There ^  no  charm 
in  the  female  sex,  which  can  supply  the  place  of  virtu  *' 

This  rule  is  equally  applicable  to  constructions  in  which  the 
relative  is  understood  ;  as,  "  Value  duly  the  privileges  you  enjoy;" 
that  is,  "  privileges  which  you  enjoy." 

Exercises. — How  much  better  it  is  to  get  wisdom  than  gold  !  The  friend* 
•hips  of  the  world  can  exist  no  longer  than  interest  cement^^  them.  E^t 
what  is  set  before  you.  They  who  excite  envy  will  easily  incur  censure.  A 
man  who  is  of  a  detracting  spirit  will  misconstrue  the  most  iiuiocent  word« 
that  can  be  put  together.  Many  of  the  evils  which  occasion  oar  complaints 
of  the  world  are  wholly  imaginary. 

The  gentle  mind  is  like  the  smooth  stream  which  reflects  every  object  in 
its^ust  proiK)rtiou  and  in  its  fairest  colors.  In  that  unaffected  civility  which 
■pnngs  from  a  gentle  mind  there  is  an  incomparable  charm.  The  Lord 
whom  I  serve  is  eternal.     This  is  the  man  we  saw  yesterday. 

RULE  8.  When  two  words  of  the  same  sort,  are  connected  by 
a  conjunction  expressed,  they  must  not  be  separated  ;  as,  "  Liber- 
tines call  religion,  bigotry  or  superstition  ;"  "  True  worth  is  mod- 
est and  retired;"  "The  study  of  natural  history,  expands  and 
elevates  the  mind  ;"  "  Some  men  sin  deliberately  and  presumptu- 
ously." When  words  are  connected  in  pairs,  the  pairs  only 
should  be  separated  ;  as,  "There  is  a  natural  ditference  between 
merit  and  demerit,  virtue  and  vice,  wisdom  and  folly  ;"  "  Whether 
we  eat  or  drink,  labor  or  sleep,  w«  should  be  temperate." 

But  if  the  parts  connected  by  a  conjunction  are  not  short,  they 
may  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  *'  Romances  mav  be  said  to  bio 
miserable  rhapsodies,  or  dangerous  incentives  to  evil." 

ExercUes. — Idleneas  brings  forward  and  nourishes  many  bad  pasrions. 
Troe  friendship  will  at  all  times  aroid  a  rough  or  careless  behavior.  Health 
•ad  peace  •  moderate  fbrtnne  and  a  few  friends  sum  up  all  the  undnnbted 


814  PCWCTUATIOM. 

article*  of  temporal  folicity.  Truth  is  fair  aud  artless  simple  and  sincera 
tmifonn  and  consistent  Intemperance  destroys  the  streugtn  of  our  bodies 
and  the  vigor  of  our  minds. 

RULE  9.  Where  the  verb  of  a  simple  member  is  understood, 
a  comma  may,  in  some  instances,  be  inserted ;  as,  "  From  law 
arises  security ;  from  security,  curiosity ;  from  curiosity,  know. 
ledge."  But  in  others,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  ;  "  No  sta- 
tion is  so  high,  no  power  so  great,  no  character  so  unblemished,  as 
to  exempt  men  from  the  attacks  of  rashness,  malice,  and  envy." 
ExereUet. — As  a  companion  he  was  severe  and  satirical ;  as  a  friend  cap* 
tioiifi  and  dangerous.  If  the  spring  put  forth  no  bloeisoms  in  summer  there 
will  be  no  beauty  and  in  autunni  no  fmit.  So  if  youth  be  trifled  away  with- 
out improvement  manhood  will  be  contemptible  and  old  age  miserable. 

RULE  10.  When  a  simple  member  stands  as  the  object  of  a 
preceding  verb,  and  its  verb  may  be  changed  into  the  infinitive 
mood,  the  comma  is  generally  omitted ;  as,  "  I  suppose  he  is  ai 
rest;^^  changed,  "  I  suppose  him  to  he  ai  rest.** 

But  wHn  the  verb  to  be  is  followed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive 
mood,  which,  by  transposition,  may  be  made  the  nominative  case 
to  it,  the  verb  to  be  is  generally  separated  from  the  infinitive  by 
a  conmia  ;  as,  "  The  most  obvious  remedy  is,  to  withdraw  from  all 
associations  with  bad  men  ;"  **  The  first  and  most  obvious  remedy 
against  the  infection,  is,  to  withdraw  from  all  associations  with  bad 
men." 

Exereitet. — They  believed  he  was  dead.  He  did  not  know  that  I  was  the 
man.  I  knew  she  was  still  alive.  The  greatest  misery  is  to  be  condemned 
by  our  own  hearts.  The  greatest  misery  that  we  can  endure  is  to  be  con- 
deumerl  by  our  own  hearts. 

NOTES. 

1.  When  a  conjunction  is  separated  by  a  phrase  or  menftber  from  the  mem- 
ber to  which  it  belongs,  such  intervening  phrase  appears  to  require  a  comma 
at  each  extremity ;  as,  "  They  set  out  early,  and,  before  the  close  of  the  day, 
arrived  at  the  destined  place."  This  rule,  however,  is  not  generally  followed 
by  our  best  writers ;  as,  "  If  thou  seek  the  Lord,  he  will  be  found  of  thee ; 
hut  if  thou  forsake  him,  he  will  cast  tliee  off  for  ever ;"  "  But  if  the  parts 
connected  are  not  short,  a  comma  may  be  inserted." 

2.  Several  verbs  succeeding  each  other  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and  ha\'ing 
a  c^jmmon  de{>endance,  may  be  divided  by  commas ;  as,  "  To  relieve  the 
indigent,  to  comfort  the  afflicted,  to  protect  the  innocent,  to  reward  the  de- 
•ervmg,  are  humane  aiid  noble  employments." 

3.  A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  observation,  somewhat  in  the  form 
of  a  quotation,  may-  be  properly  marked  with  a  comma ;  as,  "  It  hurts  a 
man's  pride  to  say,  I  do  not  know ;"  "  Plutarch  calls  hnng,  the  vice  of  slaves." 

4.  When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to  each  other,  or  with  soma 
marked  variety,  they  nmst  be  distinguished  by  a  comma ;  as, 

"  Tho'  deep,  yet  clear ;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  didl ; 

"  Strong,  without  rage  ;   without  o'erjlotoing,  full." 
**  Gofxl  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  state,  are  often  found,  not  only  in  union 
wilk,  bu*  in  opposition  to,  the  views  aud  conduct  of  each  other." 


PUIICTUATION.  216 

Sometimef  when  the  word  with  which  the  la«t  prepoMtion  agree*,  is  sin- 
g1(>,  the  couiiiin  iiiiiy  l>e  (imitted  ;  as,  "  Many  states  were  in  alliance  with,  and 
under  the  protection  of  Rnme." 

The  same  nile  and  restrictions  apply,  when  two  or  more  nouns  refer  to  the 
■ame  pre|M)8iti«)n  ;  as,  "  He  was  comiMised  both  under  the  threatening,  and 
at  the  approach,  of  a  c-uel  and  lingering  death ;"  "  He  waa  not  only  the 
king,  but  \)xe  father  of  his  people." 

5.  The  words,  "  as,  thus,  nay,  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly,  formerly, 
now,  lastlv,  once  more,  above  all,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  next  place,  in  shoiV' 
and  all  otlier  words  and  phrases  ol  a  similar  kind,  must  generally  be  separa- 
ted from  the  context  by  a  comma ;  a$,  "  Remember  thy  best  friend  ;  former' 
Iv,  the  supporter  of  thy  infancy ;  now,  the  guanlian  of  thy  youth ;"  "  Ho 
feared  want ;  henee,  he  overvalued  riches ;"  "  So,  if  youth  be  trifled  away," 
8iC.     *'  Again,  we  must,  have  food  and  clothing  ;"  "  Finally,  let  us  conclude." 

The  foregoing  rules  and  examples  are  sufficient,  it  is  presumed, 
to  suggest  to  the  learner,  in  all  ordinary  instances,  the  proper 
place  for  inserting  the  comma  ;  but  in  applying  these  rules,  great 
regard  must  be  paid  to  the  length  and  meaning  of  the  clauses,  and 
the  proportion  which  they  bear  to  one  another. 

SEIfllCOI^ON. 

The  semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  compound  sentence  into 
two  or  more  parts,  not  so  closely  connected  as  those  which  are 
separated  by  a  comma,  nor  yet  so  little  dependant  on  each  other, 
as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  a  colon. 

RULE  1.  When  the  preceding  member  of  the  sentence  does 
not  of  itself  give  complete  sense,  but  depends  on  the  following 
clause,  and  sometimes  when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be 
complete  without  the  concluding  one,  the  semicolon  is  used  ;  as  in 
the  following  examples :  "  As  the  desire  of  approbation,  when  it 
works  according  to  reason,  improves  the  amiable  part  of  our  spe- 
cies ;  so,  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  them,  when  it  is  governed 
by  vanity  and  folly  ;"  "The  wise  man  is  happy,  when  he  gains  his 
own  approbation  ;  the  fool,  when  he  gains  the  applause  of  those 
arounihim  ;"  "  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface  ;  but  pearls  lie  at 
the  bottom." 

Exerei$e$. — The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  safe  path  that  of  falsehood  a 
nerplexing  maze.  Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and  friend.nhip  hell  jf 
fiercenew  and  animosity.  As  there  is  a  worldly  happiness  which  God  per> 
ceives  to  be  no  other  than  disguised  misery  as  there  are  worldly  honors 
which  in  his  estimation  are  reproach  so  there  is  a  worldly  wisdom  which  in 
his  sight  is  fooliHhneas. 

But  all  sabsists  by  elemental  strife 

And  passions  are  the  elements  of  life. 

RULE  2.  When  an  example  is  introduced  to  illustrate  a  nile 
or  proposition,  the  semicolon  may  be  used  before  the  conjunction 
at;  as  in  the  following  instance  :  Prepositions  govern  the  object- 
ive caise ;  (U,  "  She  gave  the  book  to  him." 


216  PUNCTUATION. 

Nock.  Iu  instances  like  the  foreeoing^ many  respectable  punctuistsen 
ploy  die  colon,  instead  of  the  seniicolou. 

COI.OIV. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more  part 
less  connected  than  those  which  are  separated  by  a  semicolon 
but  not  so  independent  as  separate,  disliiict  sentences. 

RULE  1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  itsell 
but  followed  by  some  supplemental  remark,  or  farther  illustratioi 
of  the  subject,  tbe  colon  may  be  properly  employed  ;  as,  "  Natun 
felt  her  inability  to  extricate  herself  from  the  consequences  o 
guilt:  the  gospel  revealed  the  plan  of  divine  interposition  an( 
aid."  "  Great  works  are  performed,  not  by  strength,  but  by  per 
severance :  yonder  palace  was  raised  by  aingle  stonei ;  yet  yoi 
see  its  height  and  spaciousness." 

Exereiset. — The  three  great  enemies  to  tranqoillity  are  vfac*  snperstitioi 
and  idleness  vice  which  poisons  and  disturbs  the  mind  with  bad  passion 
•tinerstition  which  fills  it  with  imaginary  terrors  idleness  which  loads  it  witl 
teaiousness  and  disgust. 

When  we  look  forward  into  the  year  which  is  beginning  what  do  we  be 
hDld  there  T  All  my  brethren  is  a  blank  to  our  view  a  dark  unknown  pre 
•euts  itself. 

RULE  2.  When  a  semicolon  has  preceded,  or  more  than  one 
and  a  still  greater  pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  con 
necting  or  concluding  sentiment,  the  colon  should  be  applied  ;  as 
*' A  divine  legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from  heaven  ;  an  almighi) 
governor,  stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward  ;  informing 
us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared  for  the  righteous  hereafter,  and  o 
indignation  and  wrath  awaiting  the  wicked  :  these  are  the  consid- 
erations  which  overawe  the  world,  which  support  integrity,  and 
check  guilt." 

PERIOD. 

When  a  sentence  is  complete,  and  so  independent  as  not  to  be 
connected  with  the  one  which  follows  it,  a  period  should  be  inserted 
at  its  close ;  as,  "  Fear  God."  "  Honor  the  patriot."  "  Respecl 
virtue." 

In  the  use  of  many  of  the  pauses,  there  is  a  diversity  of  prac 
tice  among  our  best  writers  and  grammarians.  Compound  sen- 
tences  connected  by  conjunctions,  are  sometimes  divided  by  the 
period ;  as,  "  Recreations,  though  they  may  be  of  an  innocenl 
kind,  require  steady  government  to  keep  them  within  a  due  and 
limited  province.  Bui  such  as  are  of  an  irregular  and  vicious 
nature,  are  not  to  be  governed,  but  to  be  banished  from  every 
well-regulated  mind." 

The  period  should  follow  every  abbreviated  word  ;  as,  "A.  D. 
N.  B.  U.  S.  Va.  Md.  Viz.  Col.  Mr." 


PtmCTUATION.  217 

DASH. 

The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperly  by  hasty  and  incohfr. 
rent  writers,  may  be  introduced  with  propriety,  where  the  sentence 
breaks  olF  abruptly  ;  where  a  significant  pause  is  required  ;  or 
where  there  is  an  unexpected  turn  in  the  sentiment ;  as,  "  If  thou 
art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but,  oh  !  how  fallen  !  how  degra- 
ded !"  "If  acting  conformably  to  the  will  of  our  Creator; — if 
promoting  the  welfare  of  mankind  around  us; — if  securing  our 
own  happiness  ; — are  objects  of  the  highest  moment :  then  we  are 
loudly  called  upon  to  cultivate  and  extend  the  great  interests  of 
religion  and  virtue." 

A  dasli  following  a  stop,  denotes  that  the  pause  is  to  be  greater 
than  if  the  stop  were  alone ;  and  when  used  by  itself,  requires  a 
pause  of  such  length  as  the  sense  only  ^an  determine. 
"  Here  lies  the  great — False  marblft,  where? 
"Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here." 

lIVTEBROOATORir   POINT. 

The  note  of  interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  interrogative 
sentence  ;  as,  "  Who  adorned  the  heavens  with  such  exquisite 
beauty  ?" 

NoTK.  The  interrogative  point  shonld  not  be  employed  in  cases  where  it 
is  only  Raid,  that  a  question  has  been  asked  ;  a.s,  "  The  Cyprians  asked  me, 
why  I  wept." 

EXCIiAITIATORV  POINT. 

The  note  of  exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of  sudden 
emotion,  surprise,  joy,  grief,  &c.  and  sometimes  to  invocations 
and  addresses;  as,  "  Mow  much  vanity  in  the  pursuits  of  men!" 
"  What  is  more  amiable  than  virtue  !"  "  My  friend  !  this  conduct 
amazes  me !"  "  Hear  me,  O  Lord !  for  thy  loving  kindness  is  great !" 

PAKENTnESIS. 

A  parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  useful  remark,  which 
may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  grammatical  construction; 
as,  "  To  gain  a  posthumous  reputation,  is  to  save  a  few  letters 
(for  what  is  a  name  besides  ?)  from  oblivion." 

"  Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
'Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below." 


[NOTx.  lae  uarenuens  generauy  denotes  a  moaeraia  aepnMoon  oi  um 
voice ;  and,  as  tne  ',iarentlietical  marks  do  not  supply  the  place  of  a  poinL 
the  claiise  should  be  accompanied  wkh  every  stop  which  tne  sense  wookl 
require,  if  the  parenthetical  characters  were  not  used.  It  ought  to  termi- 
oate  with  the  same  kind  of  point  which  the  member  has  that  precedes  it ,  as, 
**  He  loves  nobly,  (I  speak  of  friendship,)  who  is  not  jealous  when  he  bM 
partners  of  love." 

"  Or  why  so  long  (in  life  if  long  can  be^ 

''Lent  llear'n  a  parent  to  the  poor  and  me  f " 


116  VEKSinCATIOW. 

Tftrendieses,  however,  containing  interrogations  or  exclamations,  form  u 
exception  to  this  rule ;  as,  "  If  I  grant  his  reqaest,  (and  who  could  refuse 
it  f)  I  shall  secare  his  esteem  and  attachment." 

APOSTROPHE    AlVD  QUOTATION. 

The  Apostrophe  is  used  to  abbreviate  a  word,  and  also  to  mark 
the  possessive  case  of  a  noun  ;  as,  "  '<w,  for  ii  is;  thoy  for  Uwugh; 
#Vr,  foi  over;"  "  A  maiCa  poverty." 

A  Quotation  marks  a  sentence  taken  in  the  author's  own  Iad- 
guage  ;  as,  "  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

When  an  author  represents  a  person  as  speaking,  the  language 
«f  that  person  should  be  designated  by  a  quotation  ;  as.  At  my 
coming  in,  he  said,  "  You  and  the  physician  are  come  too  late." 
A  quotation  contained  within  another,  should  be  distinguished  by 
two  tingle  commas ;  as,  "  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  : 
•Know  thyself.*" 

DIBECTION8  VOB  V8INO  OAPITAIi  I.KTTBBS. 

It  is  proper  to  beein  with  a  capital, 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence. 

2.  Proper  names,  the  appellations  of  the  Deity,  <&c. ;  as, "  James, 
Cincinnati,  the  Andes,  Huron  ;"  "  Grod,  Jehovah,  the  Almighty, 
the  Supreme  Being,  Providence,  the  Holy  Spirit." 

3.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names,  the  titles  of  books, 
noims  which  are  used  as  the  subject  of  discourse,  the  pronoun  1 
and  the  interjection  O,  and  every  line  in  poetry  ;  as,  "  American, 
Grecian,  English,  French ;  Irving*s  Sketch  Book,  Percival's  Po- 
ems ;  I  write ;  Hear,  O  earth !" 


APPENDII. 


TERSIFICATIOIV. 

Poetry  is  the  language  of  passion,  or  of  enlivened  imagination. 
Versification,  in  English,  is  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  a 
particular  number  and  variety  of  accented  and  unaccented  sylla- 
bles,  according  to  particular  laws.  ♦ 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable 
in  one  line,  to  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable  in  another ;  as, 
**  O'er  the  glad  waters  of  the  dark-blue  sea, 
**  Our  thoughts  as  boundless  and  our  souls  as  free" 

Blank  Verse  consists  in  poetical  thoughts  expressed  in  regular 
numbers,  but  without  the  correspondence  of  sound  at  the  end  of 
the  lines  which  constitutes  rhyme. 

Poetical  Feet  consist  in  a  particular  arrangement  and  coi>' 
nexion  of  a  number  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 


IHXTOUO.  41« 

They  are  called  ^ee,  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the  voice,  a« 
it  were,  steps  along  through  the  ver^  in  a  measured  pace. 

All  poetical  feet  coDstst  either  of  two,  or  of  three  syllables ;  and  are  r»- 
dttcible  to  eight  kiuds ;  four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows 

DlSSTLLABLB.  TriSTLLABLC. 

A  Trochee  -  u  A  Dactyle  -  u  « 

An  Iambus  u  -  An  Amphibrach  u  -  w 

A  Spondee  —  An  Anapaest  w  u  - 

A  Pyrrhic  u  u  A  Tribrach  u  u  o 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unac- 
cented ;  as,  Hatefiil,  pettish  : 

Restlt3ss  mort&ls  toil  f^r  naught. 
An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last  ac- 
cented ;  as,  Betray,  consist : 

The  seas  shill  waste,  th6  skies  m  smdke  dSciy. 
A  Dactyle  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter 
unaccented  ;  as,  Labdrer,  p6ssiblc  : 

From  th6  l6w  pleasures  6f  this  filllen  nitiire. 
An  Anapaest  has  the  first  two  syllables  unaccented,  and  th« 
last  accented  ;  as,  Cdntrivcne,  acquiesce  : 

At  thd  close  6f  the  day  when  th5  hamlfit  Is  still. 
A  Spondee  ;  as.  The  pale  mdon :    a  Pyrrhic  ;  as,  6n  the  tall 
tree  :    an  Amphibrach  ;    as.  Delightful ;    a  Tribrach  ;    as,  Nu- 
mgriblS. 


RHETORIC. 

Grammar  instructs  us  how  to  express  our  thoughts  correctly. 
Rhetoric  teaches  us  to  express  them  with  force  and  elegance. 

The  former  is  penerally  confined  to  the  correct  applicaticm  of  words  in  con- 
¥triirtin;r  sin:ile  sentences.  The  latter  treats  of  the  iirop<T  choice  of  words, 
/  the  happiest  method  of  coiistntcting  sentences,  ot  their  most  advantage- 
OBs  i^rraugement  in  forming  a  discoarse,  and  of  the  various  kinds  and  quaJi* 
^s  of  composition.  The  principles  of  rhetoric  are  principally  based  oa 
lho«e  unfolded  and  illustrated  in  the  science  of  erammar.  Hence,  an  ao* 
^[Oaintanoe  with  the  Utter,  and,  indeed,  with  the  liberal  arts,  is  a  prereqai> 
Bite  to  the  study  of  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres. 

C03IP0SITI0M. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  maxim  of  eternal  truth,  that  good 
§ense  is  the  foundation  of  all  good  writing.  One  who  under, 
fltands  a  subjec'  well,  will  scarcely  write  ill  upon  it. 

Rhetoric,  or  the  art  of  pemiaiiion.  requires  in  a  writer,  the  union  of  good 
•ense,  and  a  ItTely  and  chante  tma^natiun.  It  is,  then,  her  province  to  teach 
him  to  embellish  his  thoughts  with  elegant  and  appropriate  language,  vivid 

and  an  agreeable  variety  of  expre«uon.     It  ought  to  be  his  aim, 

**  To  mark  the  point  where  seoBe  and  dnlneM  meet.** 


118  TBKSinCATIOIf. 

7arentbe8«8,  bowerer,  containing  interrogationB  or  ezclamationB,  form  me 
ezcepdon  to  this  rule ;  as,  "  If  I  grant  his  request,  (and  who  could  refuse 
k  1)  i  sball  secure  his  esteem  and  attachment." 

APOSTROPHK  AND  QUOTATION. 

The  Apostrophe  is  used  lo  abbreviate  a  word,  and  also  to  mark 
the  possessive  case  of  a  noun  ;  as,  "  '<w,  for  it  is;  tho^  for  Uu)ugh; 
•Vr,  foi  aver;"  "  A  man^s  poverty." 

A  Quotation  marks  a  sentence  taken  in  the  author's  oivn  lan- 
guage ;  as,  "  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 

When  an  author  represents  a  person  as  speaking,  the  language 
vt  that  person  should  be  designated  by  a  quotation ;  as.  At  my 
coming  in,  he  said,  "  You  and  the  physician  are  come  too  late." 
A  quotation  contained  within  another,  should  be  distinguished  by 
two  single  commas ;  as,  **  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim : 
•Know  thyself.*" 

DIBECTIOIVS  VOB  USINO  CAPITAI<  I.BTTER9. 

It  is  proper  to  begin  with  a  capital, 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence. 

2.  Proper  names,  the  appellations  of  the  Deity,  &c. ;  as, "  James, 
Cincinnati,  the  Andes,  Huron  ;"  "  Grod,  Jehovah,  the  Almighty, 
the  Supreme  Being,  Providence,  the  Holy  Spirit." 

3.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names,  the  titles  of  books, 
noims  which  are  used  as  the  subject  of  discourse,  the  pronoun  1 
and  the  interjection  O,  and  every  line  in  poetry ;  as,  "  American, 
Grecian,  English,  French ;  Irving's  Sketch  Book,  Percival's  Po- 

;  1  write ;  Hear,  O  earth !" 


APPENDII. 


TERSIFICATIOM. 

Poetry  is  the  language  of  passion,  or  of  enlivened  imagination* 
Versification,  in  English,  is  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  a 
particular  number  and  variety  of  accented  and  unaccented  sylla- 
bles, according  to  particular  laws.  ♦ 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable 
in  one  line,  to  the  sound  of  the  last  syllable  in  another ;  as, 

"  O'er  the  glad  waters  of  the  dark^blue  sea, 

•*  Our  thoughts  as  boundless  and  our  souls  as  free,** 

Blan¥  Verse  consists  in  poetical  thoughts  expressed  in  regular 
numbers,  but  without  the  correspondence  of  sound  at  the  end  of 
the  lines  which  constitutes  rhyme. 

Poetical  Feet  consist  in  a  particular  arrangement  and  coiy 
nexion  of  a  number  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 


KHSTO&IC.  91f 

They  are  caWed  fectj  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the  voice,  m 
it  were,  steps  along  through  the  verSe  in  a  measured  pace. 

A]I  poetical  feet  coasist  either  of  two,  or  of  three  syllablea ;  and  are  r»- 
ducible  to  eight  kuidti ;  four  of  two  syUables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows 

DlSSTLLABLB.  TriSTLLABLK. 

A  Trochee  -  u  A  Dactyle  -  u  o 

An  IamI)U8  u  —  An  Amphibrach  u  —  u 

A  Spondee  —  An  Anapaest  u  w  - 

A  Pyrrhic  o  o  A  Tribrach  u  u  o 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unao- 
oented  ;  as,  Hateful,  pettish  : 

Restless  mortals  toil  for  naught. 
An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last  ac- 
cented ;  as.  Betray,  consist : 

The  seas  shill  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay. 
A  Dactyle  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter 
anaccented  ;  as,  Libdrer,  p6ssiblc  : 

From  th6  l6w  pleasures  6f  this  fallen  niture. 
An  Anapaest  has  the  first  two  syllables  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented  ;  as,  COntrivcne,  acquiesce  ; 

At  the  close  6f  the  day  when  th6  hamlSt  is  still. 
A  Spondee ;  as,  The  pale  mdon :    a  Pyrrhic ;  as,  6n  the  tall 
tree  :    an  Amphibrach  ;    as,  Delightful :    a  Tribrach ;    as,  Nu- 
merable. 


RHETORIC. 

Grammar  instructs  us  how  to  express  our  thoughts  correctly. 
Rhetoric  teaches  us  to  express  them  with  force  and  elegance. 

Tlie  former  is  generally  confined  to  the  correct  application  of  words  in  con- 
^Cnictiag  single  sentences.  The  latter  treats  of  the  proper  choice  of  words, 
/  the  happiest  method  of  constructing  senteuceA,  ot  their  most  advantage- 
QBs  arrangement  in  forming  a  discoarse,  and  of  the  various  kinds  and  quali- 
ties of  composition.  The  principles  of  rhetoric  are  principally  based  oa 
those  unfolded  and  illustrated  in  the  science  of  grammar.  Hence,  an  ao* 
qoaintance  with  the  latter,  and,  indeed,  with  the  liberal  arts,  is  a  prereqai* 
Mte  to  tfao  ctudy  of  rketoric  and  l)elles-lettres. 

conposiTioiv. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  maxim  of  eternal  truth,  that  ^ood 
»ense  is  the  foundation  of  all  good  writing.  One  who  under- 
stands a  subjec*  well,  will  scarcely  write  ill  upon  it. 

Rhetoric,  or  the  art  of  persuasion,  requires  in  a  writer,  the  anion  of  good 
•enae,  and  a  lively  and  chante  imagination.     It  is,  then,  her  province  to  temek 
him  to  embellish  hn  tkonghU  with  elegant  and  appropriate  language,  rvriJL 
imagery  and  an  agreeable  rariety  of  expression.     It  ought  to  be  his  aim, 
**  To  mark  the  point  where  leoae  and  dnlaem  meet." 


222  RHETomc. 

thua,  "  They  i-eturned  to  the  city  whence  they  came."  But  we  should  bo 
cautious  of  pruning  so  closely  as  to  give  a  haixlneHH  and  Jryuess  to  tlie  style. 
Some  leaves  must  be  left  to  shelter  aud^doni  the  fruit. 

2.  Particular  aliention  to  the  vte  of  copulalivet,  relattvea,  and  all  the  par- 
tides  employed  for  transition  and  connexion,  is  required.  In  compositions  of 
an  elevated  character,  the  relative  should  generally  be  inserted.  An  iujudt- 
cious  rejietition  of  and  enfeebles  style  ;  but  when  enumerating  objects  which 
we  wish  to  have  apiwjir  as  distinct  from  each  other  as  possible,  it  may  be 
repeated  with  j>eculiar  advantage ;  thus,  "  Such  a  man  may  fall  a  victim  to 
power ;  but  truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with  him." 

3.  Dispose  of  the  tapital  word  or  words  in  that  part  of  the  sentence  in  vohieX 
they  tPtU  make  the  most  striking  impression. 

4.  Cause  the  members  of  a  sentence  to  go  on  rising  in  their  importance  one 
above  another.  In  a  sentence  of  two  members,  the  longer  sbould  generally 
be  the  concluding  one. 

5.  Avoid  concluding  a  sentence  with  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  incon- 
siderable  word,  unless  it  be  emphaiieal. 

6.  Where  two  things  are  compared  or  contrasted  with  each  other,  a  resemr- 
blanee  in  the  language  and  construction  should  be  observed. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

Figures  of  Speech  may  be  described  as  that  language  which 
is  prompted  either  by  the  imagination,  or  by  the  passions.  Tlioy 
generally  imply  some  departure  from  simplicity  of  expression ; 
and  exhibit  ideas  in  a  manner  more  vivid  and  impressive,  than 
could  be  done  by  plain  language.  Figures  have  been  commonly 
divided  into  two  great  classes ;  Figures  of  Words,  and  Figures 
of  Thought. 

Figures  of  Words  are  called  Tropes^  and  consist  in  a  word's 
being  employed  to  signify  something  that  is  different  from  its  ori- 
ginal meaning ;  so  that  by  altering  the  word,  we  destroy  the  figure. 

When  we  say  of  a  person,  that  he  has  a  fine  taste  in  wines,  the  word  taste 
is  nsed  in  its  common,  literal  sense ;  but  when  we  say,  be  has  a  fine  tost*,  for 
painting,  poetry,  or  music,  we  use  the  word  figuratively.  "  A  good  man 
eiyoj-s  comfort  in  the  midst  ot  adversity,"  is  simple  language ;  but  when  it 
is  said,  "  To  the  upright  there  ariseth  light  in  darkness,"  the  same  sentiment 
is  expressed  in  a  figurative  style,  light  is  put  in  the  place  of  comfort,  and 
darkness  is  used  to  suggest  the  idea  of  adversity. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  figures^ 

1.  A  Metaphor  is  founded  on  the  resemblance  which  one  ob 
ject  bears  to  another;  or,  it  is  a  comparison  in  an  abridged  form. 

When  I  say  of  some  great  minister,  "  That  he  upholds  the  state  like  a 
pillar  which  supports  the  weight  of  a  whole  edifice,"  I  fairly  make  a  com- 
parison ;  but  when  I  say  of  such  a  minister,  **  That  he  is  the  pillar  of  state," 
the  word  pillar  becomes  a  metaphor.  In  the  latter  coiistruction,  the  com- 
parison between  the  minister  and  a  pillar,  is  made  in  the  miod ;  but  it  is  ex- 
pressed without  any  of  the  words  that  denote  comparison. 

Metaphors  abound  in  all  writings.  In  the  scriptures  they  may  be  fouod 
in  vast  yanety.     Thus^  our  blessed  Lord  is  called  a  vine,  a  lamb,  a  lion,  &o. 


PIOURBS   OP   SPEECH.  223 

•nd  men,  according  to  their  difibrent  dispositions,  are  styled  wolves,  sheep, 
dops,  seqients,  ripers,  &c. 

W.Lshington  Irving,  in  npcaking  of  the  degraded  state  of  the  American 
Ala-ri^inei*  who  liufjer  on  the  borders  of  the  "  white  settlement*,"  employs 
tljc  loUowinj'  beautiful  metaphor :  "  The  proud  pillar  of  tlieir  independence 
han  been  sliAen  down,  and  the  whole  moral /oZric  lies  in  ruins." 

2.  An  Allegory  may  be  regarded  as  a  metaphor  continued ; 
or,  it  is  several  metaphors  so  connected  together  in  sense,  as  fre- 
quenlly  to  form  a  kind  of  parable  or  fable.  It  differs  from  a  sin- 
gle metaphor,  in  the  same  manner  that  a  cluster  on  the  vine  differs 
from  a  single  grape. 

The  follovk-ing  is  a  fine  example  of  an  allegory,  taken  from  the  60th  psalm ; 
wherein  tlie  people  of  Israel  are  represented  under  the  image  of  a  vine : 
"  Thou  Irnat  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast  cast  out  tho  heathen  and 
planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it ;  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep 
rooi,  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it; 
and  the  bouglis  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out  her  boughs 
into  the  sea,  and  her  branches  into  the  river." 

3.  A  Simile  or  Comparison  is  when  the  resemblance  between 
two  objects,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  is  expressed  in  form. 

Thus,  we  use  a  simile,  when  we  say,  "  Tho  actions  of  princes  are  like 
those  great  rivers,  the  course  of  which  every* one  beholds,  but  their  springs 
have  been  seen  by  few."  "  As  the  mountains  are  round  about  .lenisalem, 
so  the  Lord  is  round  about  his  people."  "  The  music  of  Car)'l  was  like  the 
memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  pleasant  and  mounifid  to  the  soul."  '*  Our 
Indians  are  like  those  wild  plants  which  thrive  best  in  the  shade,  but  which 
wither  when  expoaed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun." 

"  The  Assyrian  came  down,  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  with  purple  and  gold ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  deep  Galilee." 

4.  A  Metonymy  is  where  the  cause  is  put  for  the  elTect,  or  the 
effect  for  the  cause ;  the  container  for  the  thing  contained ;  or 
the  sign  for  the  thing  signified. 

When  we  say,  "  They  read  Milton"  tlio  cause  is  put  for  the  effect,  mean- 
ing "  Miltim's  works."  "  Grav  hairs  should  be  respected ;"  here  the  etTect 
M  put  for  llie  cause ;  meaning  by  "  gray  hairs,"  old  age,  wliich  produces  gray 
hairs.  In  the  phrase,  "  The  Ketde  ooils,"  the  container  is  substituted  for  the 
thing  oontaineu.     "  He  addressed  the  chair;"  that  is,  the  person  in  the  chair. 

6.  A  Synecdoche  or  Comprehension.  When  the  whole  is 
put  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole ;  a  genus  for  a  species,  or 
a  species  for  a  genus ;  in  general,  when  any  thing  less,  or  any 
thing  more,  is  put  for  the  precise  object  meant,  the  figure  is  called 
a  Synecdoche. 

Thus,  **  A  fleet  of  twenty  tail,  nistead  of,  <At>«."  "  The  horue  U  a  noble 
animal ;"  "  The  dog  i«  a  faithful  creamre :"  here  an  individual  is  put  for  the 
nieciet.  We  sometimes  use  the  "  head"  for  the  person,  and  the  '  waves"  for 
the  tea.  In  like  manner,  an  attribute  may  be  pat  for  a  subject ;  as,  **  touth" 
for  the  young,  the  "  deep"  for  tho  tea. 


224  RHETORIC.  * 

6.  Personification  or  Peosopopceia  is  that  figure  by  which 
we  attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects.  When  we  say, 
"  The  ground  thirsts  for  rain,"  or,  "  the  earth  smiles  with  plenty ," 
when  we  speak  of  "ambition's  being  restless^**  or,  "a  disease's 
being  fieceitful;**  such  expressions  show  the  facility,  with  which 
the  mind  can  accommodate  the  properties  of  living  creatures  to 
things  that  are  inanimate. 

The  following  are  fine  examples  of  this  figure : 
*•  Cheer'd  with  the  grateful  Bmell,  old  Ocean  tmiUa;** 
**  The  wnldemess  and  the  •olitary  place  ahall  be  glad  for  them;  ftnd  the 
denert  shall  rejoice  aiid  blossom  as  toe  rose.'* 

7.  An  Apostrophe  is  an  address  to  some  person,  either  absent 
or  dead,  as  if  he  were  present  and  listening  to  us.  The  address 
is  frequently  made  to  a  personified  object ;  as, "  Death  is  swal- 
lowed  up  in  victory.  O  death/  where  ui  thygting?  O grave/ 
where  is  thy  victory  V*  * 

"  Wee()  on  the  rocks  of  roaring  winds,  O  maid  of  Inistore ;  bend  thy  (air 
head  over  the  waves,  thou  fairer  than  the  ghust  of  the  hills,  wheu  it  moves 
in  a  sun-beam  at  noon  over  the  silence  of  Morven." 

8.  Antithesis.  Comparison  is  founded  on  the  resemblance, 
antithesis,  on  the  contrast  or  opposition,  of  two  objects. 

Example.  "  If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase  hia 
§tore$,  but  to  diminitk  his  detire$" 

9.  Hyperbole  or  Exaggeration  consists  in  magnifying  an 
object  beyond  its  natural  bounds.  "  As  swift  as  the  wind  ;  as 
white  as  the  snow  ;  as  slow  as  a  snail ;"  and  the  like,  are  ex- 
travagant hyperboles. 

"  I  saw  their  chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice ;  hia  spear,  the  blasted  fir ;  his 
shield,  the  ri»iiig  moon ;  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a  cloud  of  mist  on  the  hills.** 

10.  Vision  is  produced,  when,  in  relating  something  that  is 
past,  we  use  the  present  tense,  and  describe  it  as  actually  passing 
before  our  eyes. 

11.  Interrogation.  The  literal  use  of  an  interrogation,  is  to 
ask  a  question  ;  but  when  men  are  strongly  moved,  whatever 
they  would  affirm  or  deny  with  great  earnestness,  they  naturally 
put  in  the  form  of  a  question. 

Thus  Balaam  expressed  himself  to  Balak :  "  The  Lord  is  not  man.  that  he 
shoiiid  lie,  nor  the  son  of  man.  that  he  should  repent.  Hath  be  said  it  T  and 
•hall  he  not  do  it?  Halh  he  spoken  it  T  and  shall  he  not  make  it  good  T'* 
**  Ha*i  ihim  an  amor  like  God  T  or  canst  thou  thunder  with  a  voice  like  him  7** 

12.  Exclamations  are  the  effect  of  strong  emotions,  such  as 
surprise,  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the  like. 

••  O  that  I  had  in  the  wUdemess  a  lodgin*  place  of  way-faring  men  !*'  "  0 
that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove  !  for  then  wouJd  I  fly  away,  and  be  at  rest !" 

13.  Irony  is  expressing  ourselves  in  a  manner  contrary  to  out 
thoughts ;    not  with  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force  to  oui 


KEY   TO   THE   EXERCISES. 

reiparks.     We  can  reprove  one  for  his  negligence,  by  sayin; 
•*  lou  have  taken  i(?v.at  care,  indeed." 

Tkc  prophet  Elijah  adoi>t«l  this  figure,  when  ho  challenged  iho  pHjMts  of 
Baal  to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity.  "  Ho  mocked  thein,  and  mid.  Cry 
aloud  for  he  18  a  god  :  either  he  ia  talking,  or  ho  is  pun»uing,  or  ho  b  o»  ^ 
journey,  or,  perudveuture,  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  waked." 

14.  Amplification  or  Climax  consists  in  heighteninj;  all  the 
circumstances  of  an  object  o^  action,  which  we  desire  to  plao« 
in  a  strong  light. 

Cicero  gives  a  lively  instance  of  tliia  figure,  when  ho  says,  "  It  is  a  crim*» 
to  jpiit  a  Roman  citizen  in  bonds:  it  is  the  heiiiht  of  guilt  to  scourge  hiin; 
little  less  than  parricide  to  put  him  to  death :  wliat  name,  then,  shall  I  give 
to  the  act  of  crucifying  him  7" 


KEY. 

Corrections  of  the  False  Syntax  arranged  wider  the  Rules  and 

Notes. 

RoLi  4.  Frequent  commission  of  sin  hardens  men  in  it.  Great  pains  have 
been  taken,  &c. — is  seldom  found.  The  sincere  are,  Sx. — is  happy.  What 
avail,  &c.— Disappointments  sink — the  renewal  of  hope  gives,  &c. — is  witli- 
oiit  limit,  has  been  conferred  u|)on  us. — Thou  canst  not  heal — but  thou  mayst 
do,  SiC. — consists  the  happiness,  &c. — Who  touchedstf  or  didst  touch  Isaiaih's 
hallowed  lips  with  fire. 

Note  1.  And  wilt  thou  never  be  to  Heaven  resigned  f— And  vho  had  great 
abilities,  &c. 

NoU  2.  Are  peace  and  honor. — was  controversy. 

RoLK  7.  Them  that  you  visited. — him  that  was  mentioned. — he  whc 
preached  repentance,  &c. — they  viho  died. — he  who  succeeded. 

Rule  8.  Time  and  tide  toait,  &c. — remove  mountains. — are  both  tracer^ 
tain. — dweli  with,  «S&c. — affect  the  mind,  ».tc. — What  sifrnify  the  counsel  an<l 
care.  Sic.— are  now  perished. — Why  are  whiteness  and  coldnesw,  &c. — bind 
them  continually,  &c. — render  their  possessor,  &c. — There  are  error  and  dis- 
crepance— which  show,  »Sx. 

Rule  9.     /*  tlie  same  in  idea. — is  in  the  poqihyry. — is  remarkable,  &c.— 
which  mores  merely  as  t7  t«  moved. — affects  us,  «&£. — M.m's  happinesw  or 
misery  is,  in  a  great  measure,  &c. — for  it  may  be,  tStc. — was  blameworthy. 
,     Rule  10.     The  nation  is  powerful. — The  fleet  was  seen,  &c. — The  church 
has,  »Stc. — is,  or  ought  to  bo,  the  object,  &c. — it  is  feeble. 

Rule  11.  My  ^>eoplo  do,  &c. — The  multitude  eagerly  pursue  pleasure  as 
their.  Sec.— -were  divided  in  their  sentiments,  ajid  they  Have  referrod,  &c.— 
The  people  rejoice — give  them  8orTo\>fc 

Rule  12.     Homer's  works  are,  &c. — Asa's  heart.     James  Hart's  book. 

Note  1.     It  was  the  men,  women,  and  children's  lot,  «fec.  or.  It  was  the  Id 
/  the  men,  women,  and  children. — Peter,  John,  and  Andrew's,  &c. 
•    Note  2.  •  This  is  Campbell  the  poet's  pro<luctifm  ;  or,  The  production  of 
Campbell,  ^e. — The  silk  was  purchased  at  Brown's  the  mercer  and  haber' 
lasher. 

Note  4.  The  pupiTs  composing.  Sac. — n^Wt  being  observed.— of  the  m^si* 
lent's  neglectmg  to  lay  it  before  the  counck 

Rule  13.  Of  his  audience. — put  it  on  ^tSb. — sprinkle  them—vsi  tk#rj 
•hall,  iuc.—o{  his  reputation. 


*20  KEY  TO   THE   EXERCISES. 

Note.  You  were  blamed ;  you  teere  worthy. — where  toere  you  T — iy»w  far 
were  yout 

RoLB  14.  Who  hast  been,  &€. — who  U  the  sixth  <iUt<  has  lost  lii  li/e  by 
^is  means. 

Who  all  my  sense  conjinedtt ;  or,  did$t  confine. 

Note.     And  who  hro%ghte$t  him  forth  out  of  Ur. 

Bulk  15.     Who  shall  be  sent,  &c. — This  is  the  man  who,  &c. 

Bulb  16.  They  to  whom  much  is  given,  &c. — with  whom  you  associate, 
fee. — whom  I  greatl;)r  respect,  &c. — whomjue  ought  to  love,  ana  to  whom,  4-c. 
— They  whom  conscience,  ^•c. — With  whom  did  you  walk  T —  Whom  did  yoa 
•ee  T — To  vhom  did  you  give  the  book  f 

Bulk  17.  Who  gave  John  those  books?  FVc.—JU'at  who  lives  in  Pearl- 
street — My  brother  and  he. — She  and  /. 

Bulb  18:  Note  2.     Thirty /«ru. — twenty/ecf— one  hundred /a/Aomx. 

Note  6.  He  bought  a  pair  of  new  shoes— piece  of  elegant  furniture. — pair 
of  fine  horses — tract  of  poor  land. 

Note  7.  Are  still  more  difficnlt  to  he  comprehended. — ^most  doiifftful^  or 
preearioHM  way,  &c. — Thie  model  come*  nearer  perfection  than  any  I,  &c. 

Bulb  19 :  Note.  That  ton.—ihete  two  hours.— STAm  kind,  &c.— He  saw 
one  pereont  or  more  than  one,  enter  the  garden. 

Note  2.  Better  than  himseljf. — is  so  nzulL— Am  station  may  be,  m  bound  by 
the  laws. 

Note  3.     On  each  side,  &c. — took  each  his  censer. 

Bulb  20.  Whom  did  they,  Sue. — They  whom  o^lence, — whom  luxury,  &c. 
— Him  and  them  we  know,  &c. — Her  that  is  naghgent,  &c. — my  brother  and 
me,  4-e. —  Whom  did  they  send,  &c. —  TTtem  whom  he,  &c. 

Rule  21.  It  is  /. — If  I  were  he. — it  b  he,  indeed. —  Whom  do  you,  &c.— 
Who  do  men  say,  &c. — and  who  say  ye,  &c. — whom  do  you  imag'me  it  to 
have  been  T — it  was  /;  bttl  you  knew  that  it  was  he. 

Rule  25.  Bid  him  «wii^.— durst  not  do  it. — Hear  him  read,  Sf-c. — makes 
OS  approve  and  reject,  ^c. — better  to  live — than  to  outlive,  &c. — to  wrestle. 

Bulb  26:  Note.  The  taking  of  pains:  or,  without  taking  pains,  &c.— • 
The  changing  of  times. — the  remox-ing  and  setting  up  of  kings. 

Rule  28  :  Note  3.  He  did  me — I  had  written> — he  came  home. — befallen 
my  coJisin — he  would  have  gone. — already  risen. — is  begtm. — is  spoken. — 
would  have  written — had  they  written,  Sf-c. 

Rule  29  :  Note  1.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be,  &c. — ^he  was  not  often  pleas* 
ing. — should  never  be  separated. — We  may  live  happily,  S^c. 

Rut«B  30  :  Note.  I  don't  know  any  thing ;  or,  I  know  nothing,  &c. — I  did 
not  see  anybody;  or,  I  saw  nobody,  <f<r. — Nothing  ever  affects  her, — and 
take  no  shape  or  semblance,  &c. — There  can  be  nothing,  &c. — Neither  pre- 
cept nor  discipline  is  so  forcible  as  example. 

Rt'LK  31.  For  himself. — among  themselves. — with  vhom  he  is,  &c. —  \Vith 
whom  did,  &c. — From  whom  did  you  receive  instruction? 

Rule  33.  My  brother  and  he.  &c.— You  and  /,  ^e.  He  and  I— John  and 
he,  SfC. — Between  yoii  and  me,  tf c.       * 

Rule  34.     And  entreat  me,  ^'C. — and  acting  differently,  Jj^e. 

Note  1.     But  he  may  retuni — but  he  will  write  no  more. 

Note  2.     Unless  it  rain. — If  he  acquire  riches,  SfC. 

Rule  35.  Than  /. — as  well  as  he,  than  they. — but  he. — but  he  and  /. — but 
ihcm  who  had  gone  astray. 

PronujteuoH*  E  ramples. — Him  who  is  from  eternity,  ^c. — depends  all  the 
happine!<s. — which  ejHsfs,  ^^c. — the  enemies  nhom.  See. — Is  it  /  or  ^  tchom 
y  '.   requested  ? — Though  great  have  been,-- «incerely  acknowledge. — There 

was,  in  the  niftn^polis exercising  our  memories. — teas  consamed. — Afflu* 

may  give— I'Ut  it  will  noL — of  th^  world  oflea  choke. —  Them  that  hon- 


irr   TO   THE   EXEHCISES.  327 

or, — ami  thty  that  despise. — I  intended  to  call  last  Mreek. — the  fields  look 
freah  and  gay. — very  nratly ,  finely  voven  paper. — where  I  saw  Gen.  Andrew 
Jackson,  kim  who. — Take  the  first  tvo, — last  three. — thirty  feet  high.— « 
union. — a  hypothesis. — I  have  seen  him  to  whom  you  wrote,  he  would  hav« 
tome  back,  or  returned. — understands  the  nature, — )xe  rejects. — H  \h.Qu.  study, 
— ^hou  vilt  become. — is  not  properly  attended  to. — He  knew. — therefore,  to 
ioredone  it. — than  the  title. — \eTy  independently, — duty  lodo. — my  fritnd's 
entering. — is  the  beat  specimen,  or  it  comes  nearer  perfection  than  any,  ^c— 
blow  them,  will  go,  dtc. — Each  of  those  two  authors  has  his  merit. — Reason  $ 
whole, — lie  in. — strikes  the  mind, — than  if  the  parts  had  been  adjusted, — with 
perfect  symmetry. 

Satire  does  not  carry  in  it. — composes  the  triangle. — persons*  opportunities 
Were  ever. — It  has  been  reported. — should  n^p^r  be. — situation  in  which. — it 
thoroughly  versed  in  his. — are  the  toul,— follows  little. — An  army  presents. 
-~are  the  duties  of  a  christian. — happier  than  he. — always  have  inclined,  and 
which  always  will  incline  him  to  oflend. — which  require  great. —  Them  that 
honor  me,  will  I. — has  opinions  peculiar  to  itself. — that  it  may  be  said  he 
mUained  monarchical. — hast  permitted, — wilt  deliver. — was  formerly  propa- 
gated.— the  measure  is, — unworthy  your. — were  Pithless. — After  I  had  nsited. 
—nor  shall  7,  consent. — Yesterday  I  intended  to  walk  out,  but  was. — makt 
or  are  thirteen, — leave  three. — If  he  go, — make  the  eighth  time  that  he  will 
have  vbited. — is  nobler. — was  possessed,  or  that  ever  can  be. — one  great 
tdifiee, — smaller  ones. — honesty  is. — it  to  be. — will  follow  me, — I  thaU  dwell. 
— M  gone  astray. — he  could  not  have  done.— feeling  a  propensity. 


PUNCTUATIOIV. 

COMMA. 
Corrections  of  the  Exercises  in  Punctuation. 

RULE  1.  Idleness  is  the  great  fomenter  of  all  corruptions  in  the  human 
heart  The  friend  of  order  has  made  half  his  way  to  vu-tue.  All  finery  is  a 
■gn  of  littleness. 

RULE  2.  The  indulgence  of  a  harsh  disposition,  is  the  introduction  to 
future  misery.  To  be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect 
in  character.  The  intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society,  serves  to  exercise 
the  suffering  graces  and  virtues  of  the  good. 

RULP.  3.  Charity,  like  tlie  sun,  brightens  all  its  sbjects.  Get.tlenes8  is, 
fai  truth,  the  great  avenue  to  mutual  enjoyment.  You,  too,  have  your  fail 
faigs.  Humility  and  knowledge,  with  poor  apparel,  excel  pride  and  ignor 
ance,  under  costly  attire.  The  best  men  often  experience  oiMippointments 
Advice  should  be  seasonably  administered.  No  assiimed  behavior  can  alwayr 
hide  the  real  character. 

RULE  4.  Lord,  thou  hast  been  our  dwelling  place  in  all  generationa 
Continue,  my  dear  child,  to  make  virtue  thy  chief  study.  Canst  thou  ex 
pe<:t,  thou  betrayer  of  innocence,  to  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance  f  Death, 
die  king  of  terrora,^Bhofle  a  prime  minister.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  wothi 
«s  ander  every  mkfiMtime.  Confucius,  the  great  Chinese  philosopher,  wa« 
eminently  good,  as  well  m  wise.  The  patriarch  Joseph  is  an  illustrioas 
example  of  true  piety. 

RULE  5.  Peace  of  mind  bemg  secured,  we  may  smile  at  misfortone.  To 
enioy  present  pleasure,  he  sacrifioed  his  future  ease  and  reputation.  His 
talents,  formed  fbrgraat  enterprises,  ooald  not  fiiil  of  rendering  him  oonspic^ 
nous.  The  path  oTpiety  and  virtue,  onrsued  with  a  firm  and  constant  spirit, 
will  assuredly  lead  to  happiness.  All  mankind  compose  one  family,  assenv 
bled  under  tne  e^e  of  one  common  Father. 


t39  KEY   TO   THE   EXERCISES. 


Rrr.r  n  \Vn  l.nvo  ,w.  »-..nc...,  ♦-,  o....,,>i.,;n  of  the  lot  of  man.  nor  of  the 
^^  inates  the  body,  d<j)re.sse8  the 

V  ^     mJ  the  heart,  and  degnjiles  man 

from  hl»  rauk.  in  cicutiuu. 

Self-conceit,  nresuuiptioo,  and  obstinacy,  blast  the  prospect  of  many  a  youth. 
J^  '         iteiy  supported  by  hia  fatlier,  his  uncle,  and  his  elder  brotlier 

'J  virtue  and  honor,  will  be  trusted,  relied  upon,  and  esteemed. 

<  alt  renders  one  mean-spirit»'<'    '^ -is,  and  base.     An  upright 

).       1  w    .   liL'ver  be  at  a  loss  to  disceni  ;  and  true,  lovely,  honest 

siii.i  .Pi   L,w  hI  rfport.     lI&hiTs  of  roadiii'-,  nil  iliiiikiti<i,  are  the  indis 

pen:iablc  qui  .     The  ur.  (.f  life  is,  to  bo 

employed  in  :md  walkn  with  our  God. 


Toli 


^y.- 


In  .  .of 

de<ay   i  .:.:   i.i.....^u.,.     An 

idle,  ti  ;rjg.     This  unhappy 

person  il  in  vain. 

RULK  7.  •  lluw  much  bclU;r  il  in  lu  gel  vviaJum  llmu  gold.  The  friend- 
ihips  of  the  world  can  exist  no  longer  than  uitercst  cements  them.  Eat  what 
is  set  before  you.  They  who  excite  envy,  will  easily  incur  censure.  A  man 
wh(»  is  of  a  detractnig  spirit,  will  misconstrue  the  most  innocent  words  that 
cjui  be  |)il  logelher.  Many  of  the-  evils  which  occasion  our  complaints  of 
the  world,  are  wholly  imaginary. 

The  gentle  mind  is  like  the  smooth  stream,  which  reflects  every  object  In 
its  just  proportion,  and  in  its  fairest  colors.     In  tlint  1  civility  which 

springs  from  a  gentle  mind,  there  is  an  incomfMu  n.     The  Lord, 

whom  I  st?rve,  is  eternal.     This,  is  •* '■ 

RUI^K  8.'    Idleness  brings  for\'  l»ad    passions. 

True  friendship  will,  at  all  times,  av.  ivior.     Health 

BIX  I  peace,  a  mcMlerate  fortune,  and  a  few  friends',  sum  u^i  all  the  undoubted 
ariicles  of  temjHiral  felicity.  Tnith  is  fair  and  artless,  sim]>1e  and  sincere, 
uniform  and  consistent.  Intemperance  destroys  the  strength  of  our  bodies 
and  the  vigor  of  our  minds. 

RULK  9.  As  a  companion,  he  was  severe  and  satirical ;  as  a  friend,  cap- 
tious and  dangerous.  If  tlie  spring  put  forth  no  blossoms,  in-  summer  there 
will  be  no  beauty,  and  in  autumn,  no  fruit.  So,  if  youth  be  trifletl  away  with- 
i>ut  improvement,  rnauhcHxi  will  be  c<mlemptible,  and  old  age,  miserable. 

RULE  10.  They  believetl  he  was  dead.  He  did  not  know  that  I  was 
the  man.  I  knew  she  was  still  alive.  The  greatest  misery  is,  to  be  con- 
demned I)y  our  own  hearts.  The  greatest  misery  that  we  can  endure,  is,  to 
bo  condemned  by  our  own  hearts. 

SEMICOLON. 

RULE  1.  The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  safe  path ;  that  of  falsehood  is 
a  |>orplexing  maze.  Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and  friendship  ;  hell, 
of  fierceness  and  animosity.  As  there  is  a  worldly  ha|)piness,  which  God 
perceives  to  be  no  other  than  disguised  misery  ;  as  there  are  worldly  honors, 
whiclx,  in  his  estimation,  are  a  reproach ;  so,  there  is  a  worldly  wisdom, 
which,  in  his  sijjht,  is  foolishness. 

But  all  subsists  by  elemental  strife ; 

And  passions  are  the  elements  of  life. 

COLON. 

RULE  1.  The  three  great  enemies  to  tranquijjily,  are  vice,  superstition, 
and  idleness :  vice,  which  poisons  and  disturbs  the  mind  w-nth  bad  passions ; 
■urterslition,  which  fills  it  with  imaginary  terrors;  irlleness.  which  loads  it 
with  tediousness  and  disgust. 


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